Esta tese se fundamenta na necessidade de novos tratamentos para o câncer do colo de útero visando o aumento da adesão dos pacientes aos tratamentos, assim como à qualidade de vida dos mesmos. Nesse sentido, formulações nanotecnológicas foram desenvolvidas com o objetivo de carrear o fármaco imiquimode para um local específico – a mucosa vaginal – esperando gerar melhores desempenhos nesse tratamento quando comparados com a formulação comercial. Três nanoestruturas com morfologias distintas foram propostas visando potencializar o efeito do fármaco em células de câncer cervical (SiHa). As formulações desenvolvidas compreenderam: nanoemulsões (NEimiq), nanocápsulas poliméricas (NCimiq) e nanocápsulas poliméricas revestidas com quitosana (NCimiq-chit). Observou-se que nanocápsulas poliméricas produzidas com poli(ε-caprolactona) apresentaram efeito mais pronunciado frente às células SiHa. Para tanto, essas formulações (NCimiq e NCimiq-chit) foram incorporadas em hidrogéis de quitosana e de hidroxietilcelulose a fim de possibilitar uma melhor futura aplicação para o paciente. Estudos envolvendo mucosa vaginal suína demonstraram que ambas as formulações são mucoadesivas e permeiam a mucosa vaginal. Porém, a formulação produzida com hidrogel de quitosana (NCimiq) apresentou maior desempenho. Esta foi a formulação escolhida para dar continuidade aos estudos deste trabalho, sendo objeto de estudo posterior em cultura de células SiHa a fim de elucidar o mecanismo de ação da mesma. Esses estudos demonstraram que há uma ocorrência de processos combinados de diminuição da viabilidade celular de maneira tempo-dependente e que mecanismos como apoptose, autofagia e parada de ciclo celular estão presentes. Essa formulação (NCimiq) apresentou porcentagens de morte celular significativas, mesmo utilizando baixas concentrações do fármaco. Portanto, os achados desta tese constataram que nanoestruturas modulam efetivamente a interação do fármaco com as células. / This thesis deals with the need of new treatments for cervical cancer in order to increase the adherence of patients to the treatment as well as to improve their quality of life. In this sense, nanotechnological formulations were developed to carry imiquimod to a specific site – the vaginal mucosa – expecting to obtain better performance than the commercial drug in the cervical cancer treatment. Three nanostructures with different morphologies were proposed to potentilize the drug effect on cervical cancer cells (SiHa). The developed formulations are: nanoemulsions (NEimiq), polymeric nanocapsules (NCimiq) and polymeric nanocapsules coated with chitosan (NCimiq-chit). It was observed that polymeric nanocapsules produced with poly(ε-caprolactone) presented a stronger effect against SiHa cells. Therefore, formulations NCimiq and NCimiq-chit were incorporated into hydrogels of chitosan and hydroxyethylcellulose to enable a better future application on patients. The studies of this thesis involving porcine vaginal mucosa demonstrated that both formulations are mucoadhesive and that they provided a good drug permeation. However, the formulation produced with chitosan hydrogel (NCimiq) showed a better performance. This formulation was therefore chosen to follow the next steps of this work, conducted in SiHa cell culture to elucidate its action mechanism. This study demonstrated that there is an occurrence of combined processes of decreasing cell viability in a time-dependent type. The study also showed that mechanisms such as apoptosis, autophagy and cell cycle arrest are simultaneously present. The formulation NCimiq presented a significantly percentage of cellular death, even when low concentrations of the drug were used. Consequently, the findings of this thesis indicate that nanostructures effectively modulate the interaction of the drug with the cancer cells.

Esta tese se fundamenta na necessidade de novos tratamentos para o câncer do colo de útero visando o aumento da adesão dos pacientes aos tratamentos, assim como à qualidade de vida dos mesmos. Nesse sentido, formulações nanotecnológicas foram desenvolvidas com o objetivo de carrear o fármaco imiquimode para um local específico – a mucosa vaginal – esperando gerar melhores desempenhos nesse tratamento quando comparados com a formulação comercial. Três nanoestruturas com morfologias distintas foram propostas visando potencializar o efeito do fármaco em células de câncer cervical (SiHa). As formulações desenvolvidas compreenderam: nanoemulsões (NEimiq), nanocápsulas poliméricas (NCimiq) e nanocápsulas poliméricas revestidas com quitosana (NCimiq-chit). Observou-se que nanocápsulas poliméricas produzidas com poli(ε-caprolactona) apresentaram efeito mais pronunciado frente às células SiHa. Para tanto, essas formulações (NCimiq e NCimiq-chit) foram incorporadas em hidrogéis de quitosana e de hidroxietilcelulose a fim de possibilitar uma melhor futura aplicação para o paciente. Estudos envolvendo mucosa vaginal suína demonstraram que ambas as formulações são mucoadesivas e permeiam a mucosa vaginal. Porém, a formulação produzida com hidrogel de quitosana (NCimiq) apresentou maior desempenho. Esta foi a formulação escolhida para dar continuidade aos estudos deste trabalho, sendo objeto de estudo posterior em cultura de células SiHa a fim de elucidar o mecanismo de ação da mesma. Esses estudos demonstraram que há uma ocorrência de processos combinados de diminuição da viabilidade celular de maneira tempo-dependente e que mecanismos como apoptose, autofagia e parada de ciclo celular estão presentes. Essa formulação (NCimiq) apresentou porcentagens de morte celular significativas, mesmo utilizando baixas concentrações do fármaco. Portanto, os achados desta tese constataram que nanoestruturas modulam efetivamente a interação do fármaco com as células. / This thesis deals with the need of new treatments for cervical cancer in order to increase the adherence of patients to the treatment as well as to improve their quality of life. In this sense, nanotechnological formulations were developed to carry imiquimod to a specific site – the vaginal mucosa – expecting to obtain better performance than the commercial drug in the cervical cancer treatment. Three nanostructures with different morphologies were proposed to potentilize the drug effect on cervical cancer cells (SiHa). The developed formulations are: nanoemulsions (NEimiq), polymeric nanocapsules (NCimiq) and polymeric nanocapsules coated with chitosan (NCimiq-chit). It was observed that polymeric nanocapsules produced with poly(ε-caprolactone) presented a stronger effect against SiHa cells. Therefore, formulations NCimiq and NCimiq-chit were incorporated into hydrogels of chitosan and hydroxyethylcellulose to enable a better future application on patients. The studies of this thesis involving porcine vaginal mucosa demonstrated that both formulations are mucoadhesive and that they provided a good drug permeation. However, the formulation produced with chitosan hydrogel (NCimiq) showed a better performance. This formulation was therefore chosen to follow the next steps of this work, conducted in SiHa cell culture to elucidate its action mechanism. This study demonstrated that there is an occurrence of combined processes of decreasing cell viability in a time-dependent type. The study also showed that mechanisms such as apoptosis, autophagy and cell cycle arrest are simultaneously present. The formulation NCimiq presented a significantly percentage of cellular death, even when low concentrations of the drug were used. Consequently, the findings of this thesis indicate that nanostructures effectively modulate the interaction of the drug with the cancer cells.

Esta tese se fundamenta na necessidade de novos tratamentos para o câncer do colo de útero visando o aumento da adesão dos pacientes aos tratamentos, assim como à qualidade de vida dos mesmos. Nesse sentido, formulações nanotecnológicas foram desenvolvidas com o objetivo de carrear o fármaco imiquimode para um local específico – a mucosa vaginal – esperando gerar melhores desempenhos nesse tratamento quando comparados com a formulação comercial. Três nanoestruturas com morfologias distintas foram propostas visando potencializar o efeito do fármaco em células de câncer cervical (SiHa). As formulações desenvolvidas compreenderam: nanoemulsões (NEimiq), nanocápsulas poliméricas (NCimiq) e nanocápsulas poliméricas revestidas com quitosana (NCimiq-chit). Observou-se que nanocápsulas poliméricas produzidas com poli(ε-caprolactona) apresentaram efeito mais pronunciado frente às células SiHa. Para tanto, essas formulações (NCimiq e NCimiq-chit) foram incorporadas em hidrogéis de quitosana e de hidroxietilcelulose a fim de possibilitar uma melhor futura aplicação para o paciente. Estudos envolvendo mucosa vaginal suína demonstraram que ambas as formulações são mucoadesivas e permeiam a mucosa vaginal. Porém, a formulação produzida com hidrogel de quitosana (NCimiq) apresentou maior desempenho. Esta foi a formulação escolhida para dar continuidade aos estudos deste trabalho, sendo objeto de estudo posterior em cultura de células SiHa a fim de elucidar o mecanismo de ação da mesma. Esses estudos demonstraram que há uma ocorrência de processos combinados de diminuição da viabilidade celular de maneira tempo-dependente e que mecanismos como apoptose, autofagia e parada de ciclo celular estão presentes. Essa formulação (NCimiq) apresentou porcentagens de morte celular significativas, mesmo utilizando baixas concentrações do fármaco. Portanto, os achados desta tese constataram que nanoestruturas modulam efetivamente a interação do fármaco com as células. / This thesis deals with the need of new treatments for cervical cancer in order to increase the adherence of patients to the treatment as well as to improve their quality of life. In this sense, nanotechnological formulations were developed to carry imiquimod to a specific site – the vaginal mucosa – expecting to obtain better performance than the commercial drug in the cervical cancer treatment. Three nanostructures with different morphologies were proposed to potentilize the drug effect on cervical cancer cells (SiHa). The developed formulations are: nanoemulsions (NEimiq), polymeric nanocapsules (NCimiq) and polymeric nanocapsules coated with chitosan (NCimiq-chit). It was observed that polymeric nanocapsules produced with poly(ε-caprolactone) presented a stronger effect against SiHa cells. Therefore, formulations NCimiq and NCimiq-chit were incorporated into hydrogels of chitosan and hydroxyethylcellulose to enable a better future application on patients. The studies of this thesis involving porcine vaginal mucosa demonstrated that both formulations are mucoadhesive and that they provided a good drug permeation. However, the formulation produced with chitosan hydrogel (NCimiq) showed a better performance. This formulation was therefore chosen to follow the next steps of this work, conducted in SiHa cell culture to elucidate its action mechanism. This study demonstrated that there is an occurrence of combined processes of decreasing cell viability in a time-dependent type. The study also showed that mechanisms such as apoptosis, autophagy and cell cycle arrest are simultaneously present. The formulation NCimiq presented a significantly percentage of cellular death, even when low concentrations of the drug were used. Consequently, the findings of this thesis indicate that nanostructures effectively modulate the interaction of the drug with the cancer cells.

L’inclusion récente de la profondeur d’invasion (PI) dans la classification des carcinomes épidermoïdes de la cavité orale de l’American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) a des répercussions cliniques majeures. Plusieurs études ont récemment évalué la fiabilité de diverses modalités d’imagerie et techniques de biopsie pour mesurer la PI en préopératoire. L’objectif premier de ce mémoire est de réviser systématiquement la littérature et comparer les différentes méthodes décrites de mesure de PI en préopératoire pour les carcinomes épidermoïdes de la langue mobile. Le second objectif est d’étudier la précision et la fiabilité de la mesure de PI sur une biopsie au poinçon dans les carcinomes épidermoïdes de stade in situ (Tis)-T1-T2, N0 de la langue mobile. Une revue systématique a été effectuée en suivant le guide PRISMA[1]. Les études évaluant la fiabilité de la PI mesurée sur la biopsie ou l’imagerie médicale, en les comparant à la PI histopathologique finale, ont été inclues dans une méta-analyse afin d’obtenir des coefficients de corrélation combinés pour chaque modalité d’imagerie. L’imagerie par résonnance magnétique (IRM) s’est avérée être la modalité d’imagerie la mieux étudiée et présente une bonne fiabilité. Le computed tomography (CT) scan est peu étudié, mais semble moins fiable. L’échographie linguale ne peut être comparée à ces deux modalités d’imagerie car elle est plus fréquemment utilisée pour mesurer l’épaisseur tumorale que la PI. La seconde étude est une preuve de concept prospective. Un poinçon profond a été utilisé pour échantillonner la portion la plus profonde de carcinomes épidermoïdes de la langue mobile de stade Tis-T1-2, N0 chez 27 patients. Des coefficients de corrélation de Spearman ont été calculés entre la PI estimée à la palpation manuelle, mesurée à la biopsie, et à l’histopathologie. La sensibilité et la spécificité de la biopsie au poinçon pour distinguer le Tis du carcinome épidermoïde invasif ont été calculées. Bien que la PI mesurée à la biopsie ne corrèle pas fortement avec la PI histopathologique, cette preuve de concept est limitée par la taille d’échantillon. La biopsie au poinçon semble toutefois être un outil fiable pour distinguer le Tis de l’invasif. D’autres études sont nécessaires avant de pouvoir recommander l’utilisation systématique de la biopsie pour décider en préopératoire si un évidement cervical électif est nécessaire. / The inclusion of depth of invasion (DOI) in the American Joint Committee on Cancer’s staging system for oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) has major clinical impacts. Recent studies have evaluated the reliability of imaging modalities and biopsy techniques to measure DOI preoperatively. The first objective of this master’s thesis is to systematically review and compare the preoperative DOI measurement methods that have been studied so far in oral tongue SCC (OTSCC). The second objective is to prospectively study the precision and reliability of punch biopsy to measure DOI preoperatively in early (in situ (Tis)-T1-T2, N0) OTSCC, and its ability to distinguish Tis from invasive carcinoma. A systematic review was conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines. Studies that evaluated the reliability of DOI measured on biopsy or imaging (rDOI) by comparing it to DOI on histopathology (pDOI) were included in a meta-analysis to obtain pooled correlation coefficients for each imaging modality. Overall, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the better studied modality. It has a good reliability to measure preoperative rDOI in OTSCC. CT is less studied but appears to be less reliable. Ultrasound (US) cannot be compared to these imaging modality as it has been used more often to measure tumor thickness (TT) than DOI. The second study is a prospective proof-of-concept. A deep punch biopsy was used to sample tumors preoperatively in the deepest part of the tumor in 27 patients with early (Tis-T12, N0) oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma. Spearman’s correlations were calculated between DOI measured on digital palpation (cDOI), biopsy (bDOI) and final pDOI. The sensitivity and specificity of punch biopsy to distinguish Tis from invasive carcinoma was also calculated. Although bDOI does not seem to correlate strongly with pDOI, this proof-of-concept was limited by a small sample size. Punch biopsy appears to be a reliable tool to distinguish Tis from invasive carcinoma. Further studies on punch biopsy are needed to recommend its use to evaluate pDOI preoperatively and determine whether elective neck dissection is necessary in early OTSCC.