M.Sc. (Geology) / The main objective of this study was to characterize the North Break Zone of the Otavi Mountain Land, Namibia in terms of stratigraphy and petrography and to investigate its relationship with the Tsumeb ore body and other mineralized prospects in the immediate vicinity of Tsumeb. The Late Proterozoic Otavi carbonate platform sequence is famous for its base metal deposits. The North Break Zone is a stratabound zone of sporadic mineralization, brecciation and silicification occurring in the lower part of Iithozone T6 of the Hoffenberg Formation (Tsumeb Subgroup). It intersects the pipe-like Tsumeb Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag ore body at a depth of about 900m below surface. Where the North Break Zone intersects the Tsumeb ore body large massive ore associated with calcitized dolomite, dolomite breccia as well as feldspathic sandstone lenses occur. These features extend along strike and dip outside the normal dimensions of the Tsumeb ore body. The genesis of the Tsumeb ore body is poorly understood. The conventional model is that meteoric fluids circulated through the so-called North Break Zone paleo-aquifer, dissolving carbonate and giving rise to solution collapse and eventually the creation of the Tsumeb karst pipe. However, no direct evidence is available to support this model. This study was devised to critically evaluate the relationship between the North Break Zone and formation of the Tsumeb ore body. The study entailed field mapping, detailed sampling of the stratigraphic sequence and ore bodies, white light, reflected light, UV/blue light and cathodoluminescence petrography. Cathodoluminescence proved to be the most effective petrographic tool for differentiating various carbonate phases. The North Break Zone is defined as a 10 to 14m thick chert free oolitic to intraclastic dolomitic grainstone, stromatolite and mudstone unit, in which discontinuous lenses of mineralized secondary quartz are present. It is interbedded with dark grey cherty micritic dolomite of Lithozone T6 of the HOffenberg Formation. Minor calcification, Cu-Pb-Zn mineralization and manganese and iron enrichment are associated with the quartz-rich bodies. The mineralized quartz bodies are only present up to 2.5km to the west and 2.6km to the east of the Tsumeb ore body. The petrographic study indicated that 1) the epigenetic sequence of carbonate alteration, precipitation of new carbonate phases and mineralization is virtually identical in all Cu-Pb-Zn occurrences and 2) that the mineralization is closely associated with Mn-bearing brightly luminescent (CL) carbonates. Earlier Cu-Pb-Zn sulphide mineralization is associated with Mn-bearing bright red luminescent sparry dolomite (dolomite IIIB). Late stage Cu-arsenate, oxide and silicate mineralization is associated with an episode of Mn-bearing bright yellow luminescent calcite (calcite II) which also causes dolomitization of the associated dolomites. A very simple paragenetic model of mineralization is proposed. The earliest is defined by pre-mineralization calcite (calcite I) vein formation with associated dolomitization. This phase is followed by deposition of kerogen luminescent Mn-bearing dolomite IIIB - quartz and Cu-Pb-Zn sulphides representing the main mineralization event. It is followed by a late mineralization event composed of Mn-bearing calcite (calcite II) with associated Cu-arsenates, oxides and silicates. Supergene alteration is represented by the precipitation of very late stage non-luminescent Mn and Fe-poor calcite (calcite III) and quartz without any associated Cu-Pb-Zn mineralization. The sequence of mineralization is explained by the evolution of a single hydrothermal fluid, from relatively cold to hot and then back to cold, during a major period of fluid migration through the carbonate platform sequence. The North Break Zone probably never acted as a paleo-aquifer for fluids that formed the Tsumeb ore body. Rather hydrothermal fluids moved from the Tsumeb ore body into the North Break Zone. Hydrothermal fluids may have been derived from the Damara orogen to the south of Tsumeb during a period of tectonic loading and thrust deformation.

With rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations, a detailed understanding of processes that impact atmospheric CO2 fluxes is required. While a sink of atmospheric carbon from the continents to the ocean from carbonate mineral weathering is, to some degree, offset by carbonate mineral precipitation in the oceans, efforts are underway to make direct measurements of these fluxes. Measurement of the continental sink has two parts: 1) measurement of the dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) flux leaving a river basin, and 2) partitioning the inorganic carbon flux between the amount removed from the atmosphere and the portion from the bedrock. This study attempted to improve methods to measure the DIC flux using existing data to estimate the DIC flux from carbonate weathering within the limestone karst region of south central Kentucky. The DIC flux from the Barren River drainage basin upstream from Bowling Green in southern Kentucky and northern Tennessee, and the upper Green River drainage basin, upstream from Greensburg, Kentucky, was measured, each for a year, using U.S.G.S. discharge data and water-chemistry data from municipal water plants. A value of the (DIC) flux, normalized by time and area of carbonate rock, of 4.29 g km-3 day-1 was obtained for the Barren River, and 4.95 kg km-3 for the Green. These compared favorably with data obtained by Osterhoudt (2014) from two nested basins in the upper Green River with values of 5.66 kg km-3 day-1 and 5.82 kg km-3 day-1 upstream from Greensburg and Munfordville, respectively. Additional normalization of the values obtained in this study by average precipitation minus evapotranspiration over the area of carbonate rock, or water available for carbonate dissolution, resulted in values of 5.61x107 g C (km3 H20)- 1 day-1 (grams of carbon per cubic kilometer of water, per day) for the Barren, and 7.43x107g C (km3 H20)-1 day-1 for the Green River. Furthermore, a statistical relationship between the total DIC flux and time-volume of water available for dissolution has been observed, yielding an r2 value of 0.9478. This relationship indicates that the primary variables affecting DIC flux for these drainage basins are time and the volume of water available for dissolution.

[pt] Os reservatórios de hidrocarbonetos em rochas carbonáticas representam aproximadamente 50 por cento da produção mundial de petróleo e tem por característica marcante sua complexidade, uma vez que são bastante heterogêneos. No Brasil, as rochas carbonáticas ganharam uma grande importância com a descoberta dos reservatórios carbonáticos do pré-sal. Entender e caracterizar estes reservatórios, que apresentam baixas taxas de penetração, exigirá grandes esforços em pesquisa e desenvolvimento. Uma pequena contribuição neste sentido é proporcionada nesta dissertação, onde três distintas rochas carbonáticas, o travertino romano, o travertino turco e o travertino de Itaboraí, foram caracterizadas geológica e geomecanicamente. O programa experimental consistiu na caracterização mineralógica, química, textural e diagenética, bem como na realização de ensaios de resistência e de porosidade. De posse dos resultados do programa experimental buscou-se correlações entre os índices/propriedades/parâmetros determinados. Verificou-se que a resistência à compressão simples dos materiais é diretamente proporcional, a sua densidade, a sua velocidade de propagação de ondas e ao índice esclerométrico; e inversamente proporcional a sua porosidade. Constatou-se ainda que a velocidade de propagação de ondas dos materiais é diretamente proporcional a sua densidade e inversamente proporcional a sua porosidade. / [en] Hydrocarbon reservoirs in carbonate rocks represent circa 50 percent of all oil produced worldwide. Those reservoirs are very complex since they are quite heteregeneous. In Brazil, carbonate rocks gained a great importance with the discovery of the pre-salt reservoirs. Understand and characterize these reservoirs, that present low penetration rates, will require major efforts in research and development. A small contribution in this regard is provided in this dissertation, where three travertines (i.e., Roman, Turkish and Itaboraí) were geologically and geomechanically characterized. The experimental program consisted in the chemical, mineralogical, textural and diagenetic characterization, as well as strength and porosity tests. A comprehensive analysis of test results from the experimental program was carried out in order to seek correlations between the indexes/properties/parameters determined. It was found that the unconfined compression strength of materials is directly proportional to its density, its velocity of ultrasonic wave propagation and to Schmidt test hammer index; and inversely proportional to its porosity. It was also found that the velocity of ultrasonic wave propagation of materials is directly proportional to its density and inversely proportional to its porosity.

[pt] O travertino Romano é uma rocha ornamental, historicamente presente na arquitetura Romana, que mesmo nos dias de hoje é muito utilizada em decorações e fachadas. Porém no meio científico é considerada uma rocha análoga a reservatórios carbonáticos, em especial do pré-sal Brasileiro. O presente trabalho buscou realizar um estudo experimental do travertino Romano, com enfoque no comportamento geomecânico anisotrópico em duas direções (normal e paralela ao acamamento), sob valores de tensões condizentes com as que ocorrem em reservatórios. Para isto foram feitas diversas análises macro e microscópicas, incluindo microscopia eletrônica de alta resolução a fim de estudar propriedades do travertino e sua estrutura porosa. Análises químicas do material e medição em laboratório dos mais variados parâmetros para se obter uma satisfatória lista de índices físicos auxiliaram neste contexto. Ensaios de resistência complementares, como o ensaio de carga pontual e ensaio de tração indireta (Ensaio Brasileiro) enriqueceram o estudo com resultados de ruptura nas direções perpendicular e paralela ao acamamento. Por fim, buscou-se estudar o comportamento geomecânico anisotrópico do travertino, sob a ótica normal e paralela ao acamamento sedimentar, através de ensaios triaxiais com tensão confinante variando de zero (uniaxiais) a 40 MPa, intervalo este bastante próximo as tensões efetivas de reservatórios carbonáticos brasileiros. Devido à grande heterogeneidade, os corpos de prova foram separados em grupos com intervalos de porosidade total similares. Então, com resultados de curvas tensão-deformação e trajetórias de tensão, foram possíveis diversas comparações em termos de comportamento geomecânico e observar que nem sempre o incremento da tensão confinante e a menor porosidade resultarão em maior resistência mecânica. / [en] The Roman travertine is an ornamental rock, historically present in Roman architecture, which even in present days is much used in decorations and facades. However in the scientific community it is considered a rock similar to carbonate reservoirs, especially the Brazilian pre-salt. The present work sought to carry out an experimental study of the Roman travertine, focusing on the anisotropic geomechanical behavior in two directions (normal and parallel to the sedimentary bedding) under tension values consistent with those occurring in reservoirs. For this, several macro and microscopic analyzes were carried out, including high resolution electron microscopy in order to study the properties of travertine and its porous structure. Chemical analysis of the material and laboratory measurement of the most varied parameters to obtain a satisfactory list of index properties aided in this context. Complementary strength tests, such as the point load test and indirect tensile strength test (Brazilian Test) enriched the study with results of rupture in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the bedding. Finally, it was studied the anisotropic geomechanical behavior under normal and parallel optics to the sedimentary bedding through triaxial tests with confining stress ranging from zero (uniaxial) to 40 MPa, this interval very close to the effective stresses from Brazilian carbonate reservoirs. Due to the great heterogeneity, the specimens were separated into groups with similar total porosity ranges. Then, with results of stress-strain plots and stress trajectories, several comparisons were possible in terms of geomechanical behavior and observe that not always the increase of the confining stress and the lower porosity will result in greater mechanical resistance.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Este trabalho teve como objetivo geral avaliar o potencial das imagens do sensor ASTER, utilizando a região do infravermelho de ondas curtas (SWIR), para discriminação espectral de rochas carbonáticas aflorantes na região Noroeste do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, complementando produtos existentes de mapeamento geológico. As rochas carbonáticas servem de matéria-prima para produção de cimento, que atualmente apresenta forte demanda dado o crescimento de obras civis devido à expansão da infraestrutura do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Este crescimento no consumo oferece desafios às companhias produtoras, tornando-se de vital importância a identificação de novas áreas para exploração de insumos para a indústria civil. Neste sentido, o carbonato tem sofrido grande pressão com relação a sua produção pois é a principal matéria-prima utilizada na fabricação do cimento. Imagens do sensor Aster vem sendo utilizadas na área da geologia com êxito, discriminando litologias e minerais como quartzo, óxido de ferro e calcita. Na região do intervalo de ondas entre 2,235-2,285 μm e 2,295-2,365 μm , as bandas 7 e 8 do sensor ASTER na região do SWIR, mostram-se adequadas para a identificação de minerais de calcita e dolomita. Como metodologia, foram aplicadas as técnicas de razões de bandas para separação de calcários e dolomitos e para a classificação espectral, foi utilizada a técnica SAM. Tornou-se como referência para a classificação espectral amostras de áreas de rochas carbonáticas aflorantes e espectros da biblioteca espectral da USGS. As classificações espectrais obtiveram resultados significativos na discriminação espectral das áreas carbonáticas, no entanto as técnicas de razões de bandas não obtiveram resultados suficientes para a discriminação de calcários e dolomitos. Para trabalhos futuros sugere-se a realização de trabalho de campo para a coleta de espectros, através da espectrorradiometria dos afloramentos dos carbonatos. / This work had as main objective to evaluate the potential of ASTER images using the region of shortwave infrared (SWIR), for spectral discrimination of carbonate rocks outcropping in the northwestern part of the State of Rio de Janeiro region, complementing existing products geological mapping . The carbonate rocks serve as raw material for cement production, which currently presents strong demand given the growth of civil works due to the expansion of the State of Rio de Janeiro's infrastructure. This growth in consumption offers challenges to production companies, making it vitally important to identify new areas for exploration of inputs for civil industry. In this sense, the carbonate has undergone great pressure with respect to its production as it is the main raw material used in cement production. Aster images sensor is being used in the field of geology successfully discriminating lithologies and minerals such as quartz, iron oxide and calcite. In the interval between waves from 2.235 to 2.285 m and 2.295 to 2.365 μm region, the bands 7 and 8 in the ASTER SWIR region are adequate for identifying minerals calcite and dolomite. As a methodology, techniques of reasons for separation of bands of limestones and dolomites and the spectral classification were applied, the SAM technique was used. Became as reference samples for the spectral classification of areas of outcropping carbonate rocks and spectra from the USGS spectral library. The spectral classifications obtained significant results in the spectral discrimination of the carbonate areas, however the techniques of reasons bands did not achieve sufficient results for the discrimination of limestones and dolomites. For future work is suggested to conduct fieldwork to collect spectra by spectroradiometry outcrops of carbonates

Permeability is that physical property of a porous medium that controls the flow of fluids through that medium. The flow of methane and water may be induced by the excavation of a mine opening in methane-bearing strata. Methane flow into a mine opening constitutes one of the biggest hazards in the coal mining industry. It is poisonous to humans and can ignite at concentrations as low as 5 % per volume and create explosions in the presence of coal dust from mining. If the flow of methane and/or water into the mine opening becomes blocked by an impervious layer, excessive pressures may develop, particularly in the roof strata of the mined seam, which can lead to roof falls. In order to characterize the flow of methane and water into and around the openings in a mine, that was plagued by roof falls suspected of being the result of excessive fluid pressure build-up, a large scale laboratory investigation of the permeability of the roof sediments of the working coal seam in the area was undertaken. The permeability was measured under atmospheric conditions by means of a modified Ohle permeameter, and under triaxial conditions with the aid of a modified Hoek cell. The permeability of the sediments towards methane and water was measured. Nitrogen was used as a control because it is much less reactive than methane towards the sediments used in this project. It was found that the permeability decreases with increasing gas pressure, in the case of gas being the permeating fluid, and increased with increasing water pressure, in the case of water being the permeating fluid. In some instances anomalous plots of permeability versus reciprocal mean gas pressure were obtained. These were attributed to the effects of methane adsorption or the Klinkenberg effect, and a possible method to determine which of the two processes is dominant is discussed. To characterize the flow in the roof strata of the coal seam being mined, the permeability was correlated to fades type. The different fades types were numbered from 1 to 14 with increasing grain size for ease of correlation. Due to the variable nature of the sediments, even in a fades type, no single permeability could be obtained for a fades type. Instead permeability ranges were obtained for each fades type. The definition of the lower and upper limits for each range were found to be dependant on the number of tests done on samples for that fades type. Nonetheless a relationship of increasing permeability with increasing grain size was found in the coarser grained fades (facies type 8 and higher). For the fIner grained fades types the permeability was found to decrease with increase in grain size. A graph could be constructed for use in predicting possible hazardous zones by identifying the fades type and then reading the permeability range that can be expected off the graph. Due to the variable nature of the sediments, the graph is, at this time, only applicable to the areas where the samples were obtained. A permeability prediction graph for all localities would be an ideal but is beyond the scope of this project. Such a graph, and the methods discussed have a wide range of applications in the coal mining and methane gas exploitation industries. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1994.

Detailed studies, both chemical and physical, have been performed on various dolomites and vug-filling carbonates, to determine the pathways and extent of the mineralizing fluids associated with the Pering Zn-Pb deposit within the Griqualand West sub-basin. Three carbonate phases were identified within the vugs using cathodoluminescence microscopy. The first phase formed a reaction rim on the host dolomites during the deposition of sphalerite and oscillatory zoned carbonate. Finally calcite was deposited, which is associated with post-mineralizing fluids. The vug-filling carbonates have very radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr values (0.72-0.76) compared with the host dolomites (0.70-0.73). The gangue carbonate minerals deposited within the vugs have similar radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr values to the gangue minerals of the main Pering orebody, indicating that the vugs formed part of the aquifer system through which the mineralizing fluids migrated. Radiogenic 87Sr was not acquired from the surrounding host dolomite. The mineralizing fluids may have picked up radiogenic 87Sr when migrating through porous rocks such as the Makwassie Quartz Porphyry of the Ventersdorp Supergroup or felsic rocks forming the Kaapvaal Craton. In addition, radiogenic Sr may have been acquired from dewatering of the Lokammona shales within the area, or expelled from amphibolite and granulite rocks involved in the Kheis or Namaqua Tectonic events. Two models are proposed to explain the genesis of the main Pering deposit and the occurrence of sphalerite in the vug-filling carbonates surrounding the deposit: 1) Mixing Model; and 2) Single Fluid Model. The Single Fluid Model is preferred which involves a single fluid migration and interaction with the carbonate host rock and/or pore fluid. The metals were probably transported as chloride complexes together with reduced sulphur at temperatures greater than 2000 C. Deposition of the ore minerals resulted from either a dilution of the fluid, a pH increase or a temperature decrease. Both dolomites and vug-filling carbonates have a model Pb age between 2.0 and 2.7. Secondary 1Ga model ages indicate a minor Namaqua tectonic influence. Carbon and oxygen isotopes indicate that the fluids originated in a deep burial environment. Future exploration work using cathodoluminescence microscopy and staining techniques will be both useful and cost-effective. Isotopic work should concentrate on the Rb-Sr system as radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr values are the best indicators of the path of the mineralizing fluid, and the proximity to ore concentrations. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, 1992.

The stratigraphy and sedimentology of Mesozoic carbonate platform-margins cropping out in southern Italy are investigated. New strati graphic data are presented from northern and eastern slopes of the Apennine carbonate platform, based on locallycorrelated field sections. Thin-section petrography is used to demonstrate the spatial and temporal distribution of derived lithoclasts. Results indicate that southern Apennine platforms underwent repeated erosion during Cretaceous time and possible reasons for this are discussed. Petrographic studies also provided outline sediment parageneses for slopes and platforms, with special reference to the detailed geochemistry of secondary dolomite formation on the eastern margin of the Apulian platform, whose growth is indicated by proton microprobe microanalysis to have been influenced by redox changes. The sedimentary facies and sediment geometries of Upper Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary slope sediments mapped in the Frosolone area are discussed in a case-study. Cross-sections showing geometries of key beds are presented, and depositional controls are discussed. Outcrop data suggest an Early to Middle Jurassic age of basin formation of this sector of the Lagonegro-Molise basin. A further case study from the Mesozoic slope in the Gran Sasso shows sediment geometries at reflection seismic scale, and relates them to possible depositional control by relative sea-level fluctuations. Finally, data from southern Apennine platforms and basins are combined in a tentative sequence stratigraphic framework for the Middle Cretaceous. The results of onedimensional subsidence modelling are presented in order to separate and describe the signals of local tectonics and relative sea-level fluctuations affecting the southern passive-margin of Mesozoic Tethys.

Thesis (M. Sc.)--University of Adelaide, 1987. / Col. folded map in pocket of v. 1. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, Riverside, 2009. / Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references. Issued in print and online. Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations.