published_or_final_version / Chinese Historical Studies / Master / Master of Arts

Why this study now? As the Catholic Church advances through the twenty first century it continues to be deeply influenced by the great legacy of its previous pontiff Pope John Paul II (1920- 2005). This legacy includes his championing of a new evangelisation; the pivotal role that he gave to catechesis in this process and his desire to eliminate unacceptable departures from liturgical norms. Recalling his own words at the Congress of Liturgical Commissions (1984) Pope John Paul II stated: In the work of liturgical renewal, desired by the Council, it is necessary to keep in mind "with great balance the part of God and the part of man, the hierarchy and the faithful, tradition and progress, the law and adaptation, the individual and the community, silence and choral praise. Thus the Liturgy on earth will fuse with that of heaven, where ... it will form one choir ... to praise with one voice the Father through Jesus Christ" (Vicesimus Quintus Annos #23). The words of Pope John Paul II call for a liturgical perspective which is characterised by moderation and an appreciation of the eschatological dimension of the sacred liturgy. Through his liturgical writings, Pope John Paul II sought to be a corrective voice in trying to ensure universal fidelity to the liturgical law. This is exemplified in his exposition of the centrality of the Eucharist in the life of the Church in Ecclesia de Eucharistia (2003), a work that was intended to remedy the liturgical ‘abuses’ that had become apparent in the Church’s worship. It is acknowledged here that the word ‘abuse’ carries connotations associated with offenses of a moral nature. Turner (2012), expresses caution about an overuse of the word ‘abuses’ in the context of how the Church prays and the manner in which the sacred mysteries are celebrated (p,169). In this discussion on the liturgy (and throughout this thesis) the word ‘abuse’ is applied in a technical manner to describe 2 significant departures from liturgical norms which falsify and damage the Church’s liturgy as well as the tradition and authority of the Church in relation to public worship 1 In Ecclesia de Eucharistia Pope John Paul II recognises the positive signs of Eucharistic faith and then he refers to “the shadows” (#10) identifying these as the abandonment of Eucharistic adoration and also those unorthodox liturgical practices which resulted in confusion and a weakened understanding of liturgy: It is my hope that the present Encyclical Letter will effectively help to banish the dark clouds of unacceptable doctrine and practice, so that the Eucharist will continue to shine forth in all its radiant mystery (#10). Redemptionis Sacramentum seeks to develop a deeper appreciation of the value of liturgical norms so that the whole Church, Bishops, Priests, Deacons and lay faithful can carry them out according to their responsibility. There is also recognition of a clear link between the liturgy of the Church and its faith and the use of unapproved rites, texts or practices damages this link. The use of the word ‘banish’ in the words cited above is interesting since it denotes a dramatic and immediate attempt to dispel rather than a gradual elimination or negotiation. This communicates the urgency and the level of concern about the unacceptable practices that have obscured the Eucharistic celebration. In Spiritus et Sponsa (2003), in observance of the fortieth anniversary of Sacrosanctum Concilium, Pope John Paul II reflects on the degree to 1 The Instruction from the Sacred Congregation for Divine Worship Redemptionis Sacramentum (2004) states: “Certainly the liturgical reform inaugurated by the Council has greatly contributed to a more conscious, active and fruitful participation in the Holy Sacrifice of the Altar on the part of the faithful” (#4). Even so, “shadows are not lacking”(10). In this regard it is not possible to be silent about the abuses, even quite grave ones, against the nature of the Liturgy and the Sacraments as well as the tradition and the authority of the Church, which in our day not infrequently plague liturgical celebrations in one ecclesial environment or another (11). Whenever an abuse is committed in the celebration of the sacred Liturgy, it is to be seen as a real falsification of Catholic Liturgy (171). Among the various abuses there are some which are objectively graviora delicta or otherwise constitute grave matters, as well as others which are nonetheless to be carefully avoided and corrected. 3 which the spirit and liturgical mandate outlined in Sacrosanctum Concilium has been implemented by the Church. Pope John Paul’s "chirograph" on sacred music, in observance of the 100th anniversary of Pope Saint Pius X's document on the same subject, Tra le sollecitudini (1903), was also intended “to offer the Church practical guidelines in that vital section of the liturgy…presenting a juridical code of sacred music” (#1) In all of these writings his deep concern for the sacred liturgy is clearly evident. Pope John Paul II’s successor to the See of Peter, Pope Benedict XVI (Joseph Ratzinger), has continued and developed this focus on the centrality of the liturgy in the life of the Church, although he has approached the matter from a different perspective. Benedict is a prolific writer on liturgical matters and the dominant focus of his work on the liturgy is to establish an understanding of its objective nature. As the current pontiff he is leading the Church into the twenty first century during what is a challenging and also a privileged time. The English speaking world is both cautiously and eagerly undertaking the implementation of the new translation of the Roman Missal (Advent 2011) - a process which will continue to require significant and sustained programmes of Liturgical Formation and Liturgical Catechesis over several years. At this stage in its history the Catholic Church faces various other concurrent pastoral and liturgical challenges in terms of dwindling congregations, a diminishing number of priests and what some perceive to be a widening of the perceived gap between the Church and people in the context of a dramatically changed social landscape (Taylor 2007, p513-516). Despite these massive societal and ecclesial changes and their sometimes pernicious effects, (or perhaps because of them), there is also a sense that the Church is entering a vital and exciting era in liturgical and catechetical development. 4 The major themes of this thesis are ‘Church’, ‘Liturgy’ and ‘Catechesis’ from which an associated secondary theme of Liturgical Formation emerged. Part of the discussion will explore the relationship between these various elements. The current relevance of this study comes from three main sources. Firstly, the Pontificate of Pope Benedict XVI is signalling a new phase in the life of the Roman Catholic Church where sociological influences, ecclesial concerns, catechetical endeavour and a liturgical agenda are meeting and interacting. His pontificate is producing a creative synthesis leading the Church into a new stage in the organic development of the sacred liturgy and the result is prolific liturgical homilies and writings. Pope Benedict XVI’s papacy is characterised by a desire to ensure a deeper understanding of the essence of liturgy coupled with a leadership which demonstrates a reforming zeal for the sacred liturgy. At the centre of the pontiff’s vision to restore the liturgy (as expressed in The Spirit of the Liturgy), is a belief that a deeper understanding of, and fidelity to, its objective nature, will help to restore reverence and beauty in the celebration of sacred rites (2000, p9). He also insists on fidelity to the authentic vision of liturgical renewal expressed by the Fathers of the Second Vatican Council (2000, p, 8; p,171).

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The Qur'anic concept of ahl al-kitab ("People of the Book") has a theological significance for Muslims, showing a sympathetic perception of other religions, particularly Jews and Christians, who share the same monotheistic belief as Muslims. There are many references to abl al-kitab in the Qur'an which may be grouped into two categories: the sympathetic verses which give ahl al-kitab a status similar to that of Muslims and the ambivalent verses which condemn the ahl al-kitab. In this study, surat Al 'Imran (3): 64, 113, 114 and 115 are chosen as examples of sympathetic verses. Six major works of selected classical and modern exegesis, from different schools of thought, are used in the analysis of these verses. Classical exegetes do not suggest any development of the concept of ahl al-kitab, while the modern exegetes include all religious communities in addition to Jews, Christians and Muslims. / The Qur'an itself recognizes the existence of good people among the ahl al-kitab and invites people of diverse faiths to come to a "common word" (kalimatin sawa'in) to establish mutual understanding through critical dialogue. This would, in turn, enable all people to work together to build a new civilization and greater harmony. This thesis avails itself of the fundamental teachings of the Qur'an on ahl ak-kitab and of Muslims' exegesis, as well as secondary scholarship on this topic. The concept of ahl al-kitab is shown to have novel relevance for our religiously pluralist world both today and for the future.

My dissertation presents a survey of theories of violence in contemporary theological discourse. I consider four positions that represent a range of current trends within theology: Girardian anthropology, the radical orthodoxy movement, liberation theology, and feminist theology. / Rene Girard creates a scientific model of violence as a universal scapegoating mechanism at the origin of all human culture, which he posits as knowledge gained through the revelation of Jesus Christ. A key figure in the radical orthodoxy school, John Milbank, recovers Augustine's theology of history as a narrative of the ontological priority of peace in an attempt to discipline human desire away from its fascination with violence. Latin American theologians argue a similar priority of the peace and justice of the kingdom of God in their rhetoric of revolutionary violence as a defense of a poor majority oppressed by the structural violence of the state. Three feminist theologians, Carter Heyward, Rita Nakashima Brock, and Susan Thistlethwaite, construct an essentialist eros untroubled by violence in order to denounce the abuses of patriarchal sexual violence. / These contemporary theologians structure their discussions of violence as a speculative problem within categorical distinctions of good and evil. Their ordered theological systems exclude real negativity, not only from God as a totality of good, but also from humans. Within these theodicies, violence becomes unrepresentable in terms of damage to bodies. / I analyze the work of Georges Bataille, a philosopher of religion, as a critical counterpoint to these theories of violence. Bataille's practice of a mysticism of violence disturbs theological assumptions of humanness as intrinsically good and extends the notion of the sacred to include abject flesh and its violence. / Bataille's work provides resources for a "poetics of reality," a way for Christian theologians to express negativity---undecidability, ambiguity, disorder, pain, violence, bodily disintegration, death---as part of their religious imagination rather than perceiving it as an external threat to ordered theological systems. A poetics of reality is a practice of attention that lives deeply in human instability and human yearning for God.

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This research arises from personal experience. The thesis is divided into two parts in order to reflect and symbolize the dichotomy which the subject of homosexuality, in general, and gay clergy, in particular, creates within the Church of Scotland. This thesis seeks to explore this dichotomy The Prologue provides an autobiographical backcloth to the research, it acknowledges my own personal experience and seeks to place the debate, with regards to the inclusion of gay clergy in the Church, in context. Chapter One outlines the research methodology and, in particular justifies the use of discourse analysis as an appropriate research tool to investigate the subtext of the Church of Scotland’s 1983 Report of Study Group on Sexuality. Chapter Two focuses on the 1983 Report of Study Group on Sexuality. Although there have been later reports which have dealt with various aspects of sexuality this remains the Church’s official stance on the particular subject of homosexuality. Chapter Three outlines the research methodology for the second part of my research where I interview five members of the clergy who have self-identified as being homosexual. It will justify, as an appropriate research tool, the use of case studies and semi-structured interviews as a means of uncovering information that would be impossible to gain otherwise. Chapter Four contains a summary of the interviews that I have conducted allowing the voices of those who are hidden in the Church to be heard. Chapter Five focuses on the five interviews and identifies common themes which have emerged from the semi-structured interviews and offers theological reflection and explores the wider implications which such reflection implies. The conclusion seeks to offer a way forward in the present climate which will allow gay clergy to play a full part in the life of the Church, free from the current constraints that being open about their sexuality forbids.

This thesis on Calvinist subjectivity within the work of Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) explores how the dialectic of word and image, and subsequently the Word, Logos, and word as rhetoric constructs conceptions of selfhood necessarily associated with and bound by the rhetoric of sinfulness. In contrast to studies that synthesize Edwardsian, and, in turn, Calvinist schemas of sin and selfhood within religious doctrine and treatises, this project examines the experiential nature of sinfulness as expressed through language or poetics. Given such examination, this work posits three things. First, in general terms, it contends that, during the Reformation, the displacement of icons led the Word to acquire the positive and negative functions of religious imagery that it meant to displace: to lead persons to God and to lead them away from him. Second, the project finds that the work of Edwards, which emphasizes feeling and personal spiritual experience, signals another shift in the Calvinist dialectic of word and image, and, then heralds the possibility of a type of ecstatic or ‘sweet’ communion with God outside of sin and language itself. Third, and more particularly, this text argues that despite Edwards’ rhetoric of ‘sweetness’, the geography of sinfulness that both pervades and varies within Edwards’ language, creates a Calvinist subjectivity, as it filters through the word/image dialectic, that becomes trapped within Edwardsian rhetoric, and, in turn, encounters difficulty experiencing the salvation to which it portends. In the end, then, this project both challenges and expands the corpus of Edwards’ scholarship in two ways. First, it demonstrates that, although valuable, sole attention to historical and theological exegesis of Edwards’ texts does not adequately account for the paradoxical tensions and meaning of Calvinist selfhood posed by the Puritan’s work and evidenced by the word/image dialectic. Second, and most importantly, the project indicates that, in actuality, apart from what the majority of Edwardsian, particularly Evangelical, scholarship contends, the ‘sweetness’ and spiritual sensations Edwards speaks of selfhood only partially open to the divine and salvific assurance. True, Edwards can still be celebrated as the Father of American Evangelical thought and practice. This project, however, questions if Edwards’ interpreters have ignored the signposts of his language and created an icon(s) of himself, and, subsequently, of a type of Calvinist selfhood that figures the narrative of their own story. In the end, then, this thesis finds itself back at its beginning as it confronts the nature and work of icons and the possibilities and variances of language—as icon and idol itself—that lay in their wake.

This thesis examines the portrayal of outsider, or ‘stranger’ groups in the series of Protestant martyrologies known as the Livre des Martyrs. The book’s compiler, editor, and publisher, Jean Crespin, placed the defence of religious doctrine as a mark of a true martyr, and a central theme of the book. He also, in the manner of his contemporaries John Foxe and Ludwig Rabus, wished to write a history of the true persecuted Church, which led him to search for martyrs from a wider range of groups who had come into conflict with the Catholic Church. These two impulses, towards theological purity and the inclusion of outsiders, respectively, came into conflict with the inclusion of ‘strangers’ who held views divergent from the French Reformed norm. Comparison of the succeeding editions of the martyrology with each other and, where possible, with the original sources allows us to see that Crespin often altered the content of his narratives, especially by removing theological elements which conflicted with official Reformed doctrine to in effect render their content ‘safer’. The changes that he made to Lutheran and Hussite passages reveal a marked concern with the nature of the Eucharist, one of the primary disputes between Protestant denominations of that period, while omissions from his passages from the German Peasants’ War and the Vaudois reveal an uncertainty about the permissibility of resistance to the State. The Livre des Martyrs, by presenting an idealised vision of the wider Protestant movement allows us some insight into the self-definition of the French Reformed Church, and the ways in which they perceived their relationship to other groups.