The effects of fire and mechanical clearing were investigated for their potential in assisting with the eradication of Chromolaena odorata (previously Eupatorium odoratum). The study was divided into two focus areas, the first focused on mechanical clearing of dense stands of C. odorata on three sites and the second focused on the long term influences of a single burn on C. odorata plants in the different size categories. For mechanical clearing, two key issues were investigated; namely whether this type of clearing procedure was effective in dense C. odorata stands and whether rehabilitation was necessary in these cleared areas. The study was conducted from July 2002 to June 2004. The area was subject to a severe drought throughout the duration of the study. The severe drought had a large influence on the result in both focus areas. A bulldozer was found to be a very effective at clearing dense C. odorata stands. Results from the mechanical clearing study showed that there was still a large viable grass seed population in the areas that had been covered by a dense stand of C. odorata plants for over three years. Thus, indigenous plants were able to re-colonize the area after removal of C. odorata without human intervention, even thought the area was experiencing a severe drought. The density of C. odorata seedlings emerging in the cleared areas was far lower than expected. The C. odorata density in the permanent plots, for seedlings that germinated in the first season after clearing (SeptemberOctober 2002), was only 0.25,0.03 and 0.72 per 5 m2 in the three sites respectively by the end of the study in June 2004. For the C. odorata seedlings that germinated in the second season (September-October 2003) the density was, 0.5, 0.56 and 1.06 per 5 m2 in the three sites respectively by the end of the study in June 2004. It was suspected that the drought influenced seed germination. Unfortunately the number of C. odorata seedlings was so low, that no significant relationship could be found between grass and C. odorata seedling density. By the end of the study the grass fuel mass in all the rehabilitated sites was already over 3000 kg ha-1, even though the area was experiencing a severe drought. This grass fuel load, when burnt, will assist land managers in controlling C. odorata plants, especially seedlings. Very few other alien invasive plant species emerged in the cleared areas. At the Mhlosinga site, Senna pendula made up less than one percent of the herbaceous species composition and only a single Ricinus communis plant was recorded. No alien plant species were recorded on the other two sites. Results from the burning trials revealed that plants in all the size categories were affected by fire. Greater fuel masses and fire intensities were required to kill larger C. odorata plants relative to smaller ones. Fire was found to be very effective at eliminating small and medium size C. odorata plants. Fire applied as a once off treatment had a significant long-term effect on the C. odorata population. The following fuel loads were required to achieve 80% mortality in this 11 study: for small plants a fuel load of over 4000 kg ha-I, for medium plants a fuel load over 4200 kg ha-I and for large plants a fuel load over 4600 kg ha-I. Little difference could be detected between a head or a back burn, as both fire types had their own advantages and disadvantages. Although some of the C. odorata plants in the burnt plots had not perished by the time of the first investigation, following the burn (February 2003), by the time of the second investigation (June 2004), many of these plants had eventually succumbed. These results highlighted the fact that plants which are damaged by fire were more likely to persish during an extended droughts period, than plants which were not subjected to fire. Results from the control plots, in the burning trials, for medium and large plants showed dramatic increases in density over time. Tagged individuals from the control plots did reveal that some of the medium and large plants did die during the drought, although the amount was negligible when compared to the number of new plants growing into the new size categories. A large proportion of the small plants in the control plots also survived the drought with many of them even growing into the medium category. The difference between the control plots and the burnt plots was obvious and significant, especially once the fuel mass exceeded 3783 kg ha-I. Results from this study show that fire can be used as a very effective tool in assisting land managers to control C. odorata in open savanna bushveld. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Larvae of Pareuchaetes insulata were released in South Africa for the biological control of the invasive weed Chromolaena odorata. Pareuchaetes insulata has proved to be a difficult agent to establish in the field in South Africa, for various possible reasons. Populations collected from Florida and Jamaica (their aboriginal home) were released separately at several sites each in South Africa, but only one population (Florida) was definitely established. It is possible that adults from this established population interbred with adults from the Jamaican population released at nearby sites. The aims of this study were to determine whether there were any differences in biology between the two populations and whether hybridization affected the fitness of either. Trials involved: (i) pure-breeding of both Florida (F) and Jamaica (J) populations; (ii) cross-breeding of the two populations and; (iii) back-crossing of the hybrids with the parent populations. The fitness of these populations was determined by measuring adult longevity and fecundity, egg viability, and larval development and survival rates. The F population was superior to the J population in most of parameters measured, including fecundity. Hybridization of these populations reduced the fitness of the F population. It is unknown whether these differences in fitness reflect differences in their native regions, laboratory cultures or response to South African C. odorata. It appears that different populations of P. insulata have different levels of fitness, and that hybridization negatively affects the fitness of stronger populations. The lower fitness of the J population may have reduced its likelihood of establishing successfully, and even reduced the fitness of the established F population where the populations came into contact. These results caution that the possible consequences of mixing different genotypes of a biocontrol agent species should be properly investigated prior to their release in the same country. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Un dispositif agronomique pérennisé entre 1995 et 1999 avec des systèmes de culture de maïs à couvertures végétales a été installé dans la zone écologique à forêt semi-décidue de Côte d'Ivoire. L'offre en N d'origine organique est étudiée dans le cadre de systèmes de culture de maïs, avec une durée de jachère de 6 mois (SC6MJ) et 18 mois (SC18MJ). Les jachères sont occupées soit par Chromolaena odorata (subspontanée), soit par Pueraria phaseoloides (introduite). Ces quatre systèmes sont comparés à deux témoins, un sans Chromolaena pour les SC6MJ et un avec brûlis de Chromolaena pour les SC18MJ. Les systèmes à couvertures végétales sont gérés en couvertures vivantes avec des herbicides et leur pérennité est assurée par une reprise de croissance des espèces avant la récolte de la céréale. Les systèmes à SC6MJ bénéficient d'une fertilisation modérée en phosphore. L'étude réalisée pose comme hypothèses de départ que (i) les déterminants de l'offre à court terme (cycle cultural) et à moyen terme (effets cumulés) dépendront principalement des quantités et de la qualité des litières de surface d'origine des jachères (ii) ces effets se concentreront à la surface du sol. Le potentiel de minéralisation des litières au laboratoire est corrélé avec leur rapport C/N, plus faible pour Pueraria (C/N entre 20 à 23) que pour Chromolaena (C/N entre 25 à 43). En 1998 la vitesse de disparition des litières suivie avec des " sacs de décomposition " est beaucoup plus rapide qu'en 1999 en relation au début du cycle de décomposition avec le régime pluviométrique. Les deux années la quantité de litières présentes après la coupe détermine le taux de décomposition à moyen terme des litières. Ces dynamiques, modélisées sur deux années, permettent de distinguer un compartiment de litières à disparition rapide et un compartiment à disparition lente. La comparaison des pertes en C dans des " sacs de décomposition " à maille différente montre que l'activité de la mésofaune et de la macrofaune du sol pourrait être responsable de la disparition de 50 % des litières au début du processus de décomposition et de 35% à la fin du processus de décomposition. Leur action de fragmentation et d'incorporation au sol des litières (meules des termites champignonnistes situées à la surface du sol) permet une disparition comparativement plus rapide des litières de Chromolaena que celles de Pueraria. L'application des modèles aux données obtenues sur les mobilisations en N des jachères en relation avec les besoins de la culture en N indique (i) un risque " d'asynchronie " en début de cycle (ii) une offre insuffisante en fin de cycle pour les SC6MJ (iii) peu de différenciation entre l'offre de Chromolaena et celle de Pueraria. L'offre en N in situ du sol en surface (0-10 cm) en 1998 et 1999, estimée pendant des périodes de 90 jours durant le cycle du maïs par des mesures et des incubations de sol, est corrélée pour les SC6MJ avec les mobilisations en N du maïs dans les parties aériennes. C'est le traitement avec Pueraria qui les deux années satisfait le mieux les besoins en N de la culture et cette offre est comparable à celle des SC18MJ. L'offre en N varie peu selon les traitements des SC18MJ. Le régime pluviométrique intervient (i) à une échelle pluriannuelle, en déterminant, l'intensité du pic de minéralisation en N minéral du sol et les accumulations en N dans les parties aériennes des jachères (ii) à l'échelle de la campagne en interaction avec les litières en surface et l'activité des systèmes racinaires des couvertures végétales. La litière de Pueraria semble mieux conserver l'humidité du sol et le système racinaire de Chromolaena mobiliser de plus fortes quantités d'eau. En situations hydriques limitantes, la minéralisation nette est corrélée aux humidités de sol. Les litières semblent être à l'origine en 1998 de l'augmentation de la biomasse microbienne du sol en surface créant ainsi une source potentielle d'immobilisation temporaire de N. En 1998 l'offre en N estimée par minéralisation nette indique une meilleure synchronie avec les besoins de la culture malgré une pluviométrie plus abondante en début de cycle par rapport en 1999. Une étude utilisant l'abondance naturelle 15N permet d'estimer que la litière de Pueraria peut contribuer fortement à la nutrition azotée de la culture, de 30 à 41% en 1998 et de 64 à 87% en 1999 dans le cadre du système de culture à jachère de 6 mois. Les différenciations sur les matières organiques du sol (MOS) indiquent un début d'effet sur les stocks évalués sur 0-10 cm en moyenne à 2.34 t ha-1 N pour les SC6MJ et en moyenne à 2.83 t ha-1 N pour les SC18MJ. Pour les SC6MJ la différence obtenue entre les apports et les pertes sur quatre années suggère que Chromolaena conserve mieux les stocks en C et N que Pueraria. La comparaison avec une jachère forestière située hors dispositif indique que la disponibilité en matériaux facilement minéralisables dans nos agrosystèmes est (i) réduite en fin de saison des pluies (ii) diminuée par la pratique du brûlis (iii) peu augmentée par la pratique de la jachère. Les études sur des incubations de longue durée (106 et 85 jours) montrent des effets significatifs sur les modélisations faites par ajustement aux points expérimentaux sur les cinétiques de respiration et de minéralisation nette cumulées (exprimées en proportion par rapport au C et N total du sol). Elles permettent d'identifier d'importants facteurs de différenciation au niveau du compartiment des MOS à taux de renouvellement élevé. Pour les SC6JM ce compartiment représente une part plus importante avec Pueraria, certainement en relation directe avec des apports cumulés de plus grande qualité biochimique (rapport lignine / N). La durée de la jachère n'améliore pas la disponibilité en N facilement minéralisable indiquant ainsi un blocage de C et N au niveau du sol de nature physique et/ou biochimique.

Over 5000 flavonoids have been identified so far and many of these are known to have antineoplastic properties. The relationships between the targeting activities by these compounds on cancer cells and the specific features that determine their molecular structures are not completely elucidated. Here we report the differential cytotoxic effects of two unsubstituted ring B flavonoids that differ solely in the presence of a C2, C3 double bond in ring C, on human cancer cells of the lung (A549), pancreas (MIA PaCa-2, Panc28), colon (HCT 116, CaCo-2), Liver (HepG2), and breast (SKBr3). These compounds were extracted from Chromolaena leivensis (Hieron) a plant belonging to the genus Chromolaena reputed to have antitumor activities. 3, 5 dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavone induce apoptosis in cancer cells of the lung A549, pancreas MIA PaCa-2 and Panc28, and colon HCT116, but not on Caco-2; whereas 3,5 dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavanone display proliferative effects in A549, Panc 28, MIA PaCa, and HCT116 cells at low concentrations, and slight cytotoxicity only on CaCo-2, a cancer cell line with a higher differentiation status than other cells tested. At the concentrations studied (5-80µM) neither compound demonstrated activity against cancer cells of the liver (HepG2) or breast (SKBr3) as indicated by MTT cell viability assays. When used in combination with 3,5 dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavone in pancreatic cancer cells, the targeting preference of 3, 5 dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavanone is altered, and a significant increase in inhibition of cell viability is observed 48 hours after dosing. The presence or absence of the C2, C3 double bond in ring C, accounts for electrochemical and structural changes that dictate differential specificity towards cancer cells. 3,5 dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavone has a more planar structure, whereas the absence of the double bond in C2, C3 causes ring B to adopt a perpendicular orientation to the plane formed by rings A and C and the OH group at C3.

Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson (chromolaena, triffid weed) (Asteraceae: Eupatorieae) is one of the most problematic weeds in the subtropical northeastern parts of South Africa. Calycomyza eupatorivora Spencer (Diptera: Agromyzidae) was introduced as a biological control agent for the control of this weed. No study has yet been done to quantify field populations of C. eupatorivora since its establishment in 2003. The aim of this study was therefore to measure aspects of the field population and laboratory behaviour of C. eupatorivora on C. odorata. The first objective was to determine the percentage leaf area mined by larvae of C. eupatorivora on C. odorata plants exposed to three densities of mated flies, and also to determine the number of mines produced by these different densities, and their distribution on the plant. It also attempts to determine the relationship between chromolaena leaf quality and usage by C. eupatorivora. The maximum percentage of leaf area damaged was 37.5% for one of the trials involving five pairs of flies. Mean percentage leaf area damaged was slightly higher with five (28.5%) than ten pairs (22.0%) of adults and was lowest with one pair (6.5%), but these differences were not significant. In relation to the mean number of mines per plant, five and ten pairs of flies caused slightly more mines than one pair. The other significantly different parameter was number of leaves mined per plant, which was higher for five pairs. Within a plant, C. eupatorivora probably selects a subset of leaves with certain chemical and physical characteristics for oviposition since certain leaves were left unmined while others received multiple eggs. Percentage water content did not differ between mined and unmined leaves, but clear patterns were shown by acid detergent lignin which was higher in unmined leaves and nonstructural carbohydrates which were much higher in mined leaves. It is likely that leaf age plays a role in its suitability. The second objective was to quantify C. eupatorivora infestation levels, by counting and examining larval leaf mines, on C. odorata in the field at four times ('seasons' - September, December, March and July) over a 12-month period, and at three study sites that each included two habitats, viz. open and shady. At each of these six sampling sites, line transects were laid out and plants/branches sampled along them. Both plant/branch height and the number of leaves increased between September and March, and plants in the open habitats were taller and had more leaves than those in the shaded habitats. At the third site, the shady habitat supported taller plants with more leaves compared to the same habitat at the other sites. There was a steep increase in the number of C. eupatorivora mines from December to March. The mean number of mines, both total and in relation to leaves available, was highest in March, and was higher in the shaded habitats compared to the open habitats. The mean number of mines per damaged leaf was slightly higher in December compared to the other seasons, and was also higher in the open than the shaded habitats. Mean larval mortality was high (70%) in September but decreased to 32% in December, and increased again in late summer. The overall levels of mining by C. eupatorivora were low, with less than 5% of leaves sampled having mines. Taken together, the laboratory and field trials suggest that C. eupatorivora is restricted to a subset of the leaves of C. odorata for its development; that the field population is unable to make full use of the resource of young, palatable leaves that develop in early- to mid-summer because it only becomes large in late summer; and that the high mortality rate of young larvae negatively affects both the population of the fly and the level of damage to the plant. Given that these results were obtained in an area where the population of C. eupatorivora is relatively high, it is unlikely that the fly is having anything more than a negligible effect on C. odorata in South Africa at present. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

The objective of this study was to describe the impacts of the density of Chromolaena odorata (chromolaena) on species composition in coastal grasslands and to investigate serial changes in the vegetation following the implementation of a burning programme. The thesis deals with key ecological concepts and issues, so a comprehensive literature review is included. Chromolaena invades coastal grasslands that are not burnt regularly (i.e. biennially). Grasslands that were not burnt for 30 years were seral to secondary forest. The successional pathway from open grassland to closed canopy forest varied according to soil type. Coastal grasslands on Glenrosa soils were characterised by savanna at an intermediate stage between the grassland and forest states. Shading ended the persistence of savanna species (e.g. Combretum molle, Dichrostachys cinerea and Heteropyxis natalensis) in forest, whereas forest precursors (e.g. Canthium inerme, Maytenus undata and Protorhus longifolia) only established where fire was absent. Chromolaena infestations were characterised by multi-stemmed adult plants of variable height (i.e. 1-3 m), depending on soil type. Regic sands did not support stratified woody vegetation and chromolaena infestations were self-supporting, reaching a maximum height of 1.5 m. Glenrosa soils supported tree communities and chromolaena reached more than 3 m in places. The density of chromolaena affected species composition in grasslands with moderate to dense stands (> 5 adult plants m ¯² or >50000 shrubs ha ¯¹). Chromolaena stands became monospecific when the number of adult plants exceeded 7 m ¯². Succession to forest also ceased once chromolaena became thicket-forming. Fire-induced mortality of the chromolaena depended on grass fuel loads. Grass cover of 30% (c. 1 000 kg ha ¯¹) was required to achieve 80% mortality of the parent infestation after the initial burn. Dense infestations could only be killed by running head-fires from adjacent grasslands into thickets. Under conditions where head-fires could not be used, infestations were slashed and burnt at the height of the dry season (July to August) to achieve an 80% kill rate. Seedlings were killed (99%) by annual burning in sparse (≤ 10000 shrubs ha ¯¹) to moderate < 50 000 shrubs ha ¯¹) infestations. The suppression of chromolaena and other alien species, establishing on bare ground after clearing dense infestations, required chemical control until grass cover was sufficient (i.e. 1 000 kg ha ¯¹) to effect uniform burning. Certain secondary alien invaders (e.g. Lantana camara, Psidium guajava and Solanum mauritianum) persisted by coppicing profusely after fire and herbicides need to be integrated into burning programmes when these species occur. Grasslands on regic sands (e.g. Ischaemum fasciculatum, Panicum dregeanum and Themeda triandra) were more resilient to the modifying effects of woody vegetation, than grasslands on Glenrosa soils. Grasslands on Glenrosa soils did not revert to an open state but persisted as ruderal savanna grassland (e.g. Eragrostis curvula, Hyparrhenia tamba and Cymbopogon validus) once fire-resistant tree species (e.g. Combretum molle and Heteropyxis natalensis) had established. Depending the objectives for land management and the vegetation's condition, coastal grasslands can be rehabilitated and managed in multiple states, i.e. grassland, savanna or forest communities. A state-and-transition model based on the empirical data recorded in the study is presented and shows chromolaena altering vegetation states from open grassland to chromolaena dominated thicket. The model illustrates chromolaena thickets as the dominant phase of a moist coastal forest/savanna succession, irrespective of soil type, in absence of appropriate land management practices (e.g. control burning and integrated control of alien vegetation). This model should aid in planning strategies for the control of chromolaena in subtropical grasslands in South Africa. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Les premières souches bactériennes résistantes aux antibiotiques sont connues depuis 70 ans et se sont multipliées ces dernières années posant un grave problème de santé publique. Parmi les nombreux types d'infections induites par ces bactéries, nous nous sommes intéressés aux infections intestinales qui peuvent dégénérer en maladies inflammatoires de l'intestin et cancers. Notre travail de thèse a consisté à proposer des outils thérapeutiques dans le traitement des pathologies intestinales infectieuses : des peptides antimicrobiens dérivés de la chromogranine A et des extraits de plantes de la médecine traditionnelle béninoise. La chromogranine A est une protéine libérée par les cellules nerveuses, neuroendocrines et immunitaires au cours d'un stress et maturée en peptides. Des peptides actifs contre quatre souches bactériennes pathogènes (Klebsiella oxytoca, Salmonella enterica, Shigella sonnei et Vibrio cholera non O1) ont été identifiés et l'interaction bactérie-peptide analysée. L'étude de la combinaison peptide-antibiotique montre que la cateslytine permet de réduire les doses d'antibiotiques nécessaires. Ensuite, nous avons étudié l'implication de deux peptides sur un modèle de cellules neuroendocrines, les cellules BON. La chromofungine provoque la stimulation des cellules BON en induisant un influx de calcium extracellulaire, tandis que la catestatine est capable de bloquer l'activité de la chromofungine.Après un screening des extraits de 14 plantes du Bénin, nous avons isolé deux molécules, la sinensétine et l'O-tétraméthyléther scutellaréine, responsables de l'activité antibactérienne de Chromolaena odorata contre les pathogènes étudiés.