Master of Science / Department of Architectural Engineering and Construction Science / Thomas Logan / Typical building sanitary lines are sloped at a minimum of 1/8” to utilize gravity and prevent liquid separation from solid waste. The purpose of this research is to analyze how a lesser amount of water from a 1.6 gallon per flush water closet affects drainage in a four inch diameter pipe at 1/4" slope. Low flow water closet manufacturers ensure that waste clears the bowl, but there is no significant research following the flushed water further down the pipe line. This research utilizes a 1.6 gallon per flush floor-mounted water closet connected to 30 feet of sloped four inch PVC Drain Waste Vent piping. Data presented from 25 flush trials indicates that further research needs to be conducted at a smaller pipe diameter. Four-inch piping is too large, causing the 1.6 gallons of water to quickly lose the required force over the course of 30 feet, resulting in pipe line clogs. An average of four additional water-only flushes are necessary to completely clear the test media and toilet paper from the pipe. This research references previously published research and focuses on test results presented by the Plumbing Efficiency Research Coalition. Two case studies of city wide replacements of old water closets are presented to discuss the viability of city wide mandates in relation to water conservation.

The broad aim of this essay is to examine the different variations of the wooden clog throughout the ages, beginning in the 13th century and moving onward to the present. Geographically speaking,the paper focuses on wooden clogs from western Europe and Sweden especially. The different versions of the wooden clog are presented chronologically and compared accordingly. As the analysis inches closer to the present-day clog, aspects of branding, commerce and advertising grow more relevant. Visual semiotics is used to analyse how certain messages are communicated through the design of the clogs in question. It is evident that not only the style of the wooden clog has changed throughout the years, but the shoes inherent meaning too. The present-day clog possesses (unlike its predecessors) a capacity to express the wearer’s identity, be it one’s gender or ancestry, by means of design.