Montanas forest products industry has been experiencing declining production levels during the last two decades, with many mills struggling to survive due to declining harvest levels over the last two decades and the current low domestic demand. By diversifying wood product sales into new international markets, Montana wood product manufacturers would have an opportunity to increase their current production levels. To determine the potential export opportunities for Montana manufacturers in the Chinese wood product import market, a strategic analysis was conducted. The purpose of the strategy formulation for this research was to identify the position that Montana wood product manufacturers should take, in order to achieve the best possible sustainable competitive advantage for exporting their products to China. To facilitate this process, Montanas forest industry core competencies were identified and aligned with Chinese wood product import market opportunities to highlight strong growth prospects for the Montana wood products industry. It was found that the Montanas log supply strengths primarily exist in the Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, and lodgepole pine species, with the majority of the volume existing in small size classes (7.0-14.9 diameter at breast height). The wood products that provided the best fit with Chinese import demands are dimensional lumber (2x4s), of these species. The predominant Chinese uses of these products are for concrete forms and furring strips, which are key components in concrete housing construction. The recommended target markets that Montana wood product manufacturers should pursue are the 2nd and 3rd tier lumber distributors that are located in the 2nd and 3rd tier cites of the Shandong province. It is believed that this market provides an opportunity for future growth and decreased competition from industry rivals. The best opportunity to increase total export volumes of Montana wood products is through the creation of a wood product export coalition, licensed as an export trading company. The creation of this coalition increases the total chance of export success for Montanas wood product industry, while reducing the marketing cost and risk for individual manufacturers.

Fuelbed depth and loading are fundamental parameters for predicting fire behavior and effects. This thesis considers the application of Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) for characterizing the structure, measuring depth and mass in a grassland fuelbed. It examines whether TLS can be used to quantify the vertical structure of a bunchgrass community in terms of bunch and seed head, and to describe spatial variability in height and fuel mass at fine grain (0.25m2). In the experiment, fuels are mechanically manipulated to enhance variability. Height and mass are modified independently at three levels using a randomized design. Results show that vertical strata (bunches and seed head) are measurable within the TLS height profile and changes in height due to treatments can be detected. There are statistically significant but small absolute differences (± 1-6cm) between TLS-derived and field-measured heights with no systematic bias observed. TLS-derived height measurements have a higher precision than field-measured heights, but the accuracy of measurements is uncertain given ambiguity in field measurements. In the untreated grassland, fuel mass is associated with TLS-derived bunch height and standard deviation of height; a linear model using these metrics explains ~30 percent of the variability in biomass. In the treated grassland, a linear model using median height and standard deviation of height accounts for ~40 percent of the variability in biomass. In the biomass-only treatment, bunch height and canopy cover are the best combination of explanatory variables for biomass accounting for ~ 42 percent; median height and standard deviation of height account for 24 percent of biomass variability in the height-only treatment. Collectively, these results suggest that TLS can be used to quantify the spatial variability in heights (and hence, volumes) occupied by fuels in a grassland where biomass is concentrated in distinct strata. However, prediction of biomass leaves room for improvement, with the most substantial gains likely to be made with better cover/density metrics. Even with improved density metrics, improvements are likely to be modest because variability in the bunchgrass system is low and the TLS is not very sensitive to small changes in cover.

The accurate estimation of forest attributes at many different spatial scales is a critical problem. Forest landowners may be interested in estimating timber volume, forest biomass, and forest structure to determine their forest's condition and value. Counties and states may be interested to learn about their forests to develop sustainable management plans and policies related to forests, wildlife, and climate change. Countries and consortiums of countries need information about their forests to set global and national targets to deal with issues of climate change and deforestation as well as to set national targets and understand the state of their forest at a given point in time. This dissertation approaches these questions from two perspectives. The first perspective uses the process model Biome-BGC paired with inventory and remote sensing data to make inferences about a current forest state given known climate and site variables. Using a model of this type, future climate data can be used to make predictions about future forest states as well. An example of this work applied to a forest in northern California is presented. The second perspective of estimating forest attributes uses high resolution aerial imagery paired with light detection and ranging (LiDAR) remote sensing data to develop statistical estimates of forest structure. Two approaches within this perspective are presented: a pixel based approach and an object based approach. Both approaches can serve as the platform on which models (either empirical growth and yield models or process models) can be run to generate inferences about future forest state and current forest biogeochemical cycling.

Gully rejuvenation (GR) following wildfire influences landform evolution and generates flooding and debris that alters aquatic habitat and threatens human activities. Fire severity, defined as the degree of vegetation loss by wildfire, is a hypothesized control on this erosion response. I investigated three related aspects of the relationship between fire severity and GR: The capacity of vegetation disturbance to explain the occurrence or non-occurrence of GR; the spatial structure of burn mosaics relative to post-fire erosion; and the relationship between fire severity and threshold conditions required for channel initiation. I surveyed 269 burned catchments and mapped 111 cases of GR across sites in Montana and Idaho. I created the Vegetation Disturbance Index (VDI) derived from LANDSAT images to quantify fire severity and implemented geospatial and statistical analysis to quantify relationships between VDI and post-fire erosion response. Vegetation disturbance strongly explained GR with additional influences from upslope geometry and pre-fire shrub cover. As fire severity increased, the percent of the catchment area covered by continuous patches of high severity burn increased non-linearly. Trends in patch structure defined a threshold of fire severity after which the probability of GR was strongly correlated with the development of large, continuous severely burned patches. Fire severity systematically influenced the relationship between source area and steepness. Threshold conditions for channel initiation, specifically source area steepness and curvature, decreased as vegetation disturbance increased. These results provide inferential evidence that vegetation disturbance exerts first-order controls over post-fire erosion processes. The results of the patch-pattern analysis suggest that progressive loss of vegetation due to wildfire leads to critical thresholds of hydrologic connectivity after which runoff and erosion accelerate. The source area analysis suggests that forces of convergent flow are not fully expressed until a significant proportion of vegetation has been consumed such that flow resistance is minimized. The VDI as a continuous metric of vegetation disturbance may contribute to improved quantitative analysis of landform evolution relative to vegetation disturbance, ecological effects of fire, and ecosystem response to climate change. The assessment methodology outlined herein provides a first step towards a systematic quantification of the potential for GR following wildfire.

<p>National assessments have led many to conclude that the level of ecological literacy among the general population in the United States is too low to enable effective social responses to current environmental challenges. However, the actual meaning of ecological literacy varies considerably between academic fields and has been a topic of intensive deliberation for several decades. Within the field of ecology in particular, a driving purpose behind this ongoing discussion has been to advance a complete, pedagogy-guiding, and broadly applicable framework for ecological literacy, allowing for the establishment of guidelines and tools for assessing educational achievement; yet, a widely accepted framework does not currently exist. What is ecological literacy and how can it be achieved? Through an extensive review of the literature, I traced the evolution of the related concepts of environmental literacy, ecological literacy, and ecoliteracy, and compared and contrasted the numerous proposed frameworks across multiple dimensions of affect, knowledge, skills, and behavior. In addition to characterizing the overall discourse, this analysis facilitated close examination of where we have been, where we are, and where we might be headed with respect to these vital conversations. To explore current perspectives on the topic, I analyzed the open-ended responses of more than 1,000 ecologists and other environmental scientists on the nature of ecological literacy and how it may be achieved. Factor analysis revealed the presence of six common dimensions underlying respondents' views of ecological literacy (cycles and webs, ecosystem services, negative human impacts, critical thinking/application, nature of ecological science, and biogeography) and five common dimensions for how to achieve it (education by mass media, formal/traditional education, financial incentive, participatory/interactive education, and communication/outreach by scientists). Based on these results, I proposed a framework for ecological literacy that, ideally, will provide guidance for the development of updated ecology curricula and assessment tools, a foundation for discussion of alignment between K-12 and higher education, and a mechanism for creating greater synergy between formal and informal learning environments. Further, to assess the impacts of innovative graduate programs designed to train ecologists in promoting ecological literacy, I analyzed pre- and post-fellowship surveys completed by participants in an ecologically focused K-12 outreach program at The University of Montana, as well as the broader impacts of a set of similar programs across the country. These highly beneficial programs are urgently needed to ensure that future leaders of the scientific enterprise are well-equipped with the tools to effectively communicate their science with diverse audiences well beyond their scientific peers. Indeed, ecologists and other natural and social scientists who study the environment have multiple roles to play in promoting a modern vision of ecological literacy in society today.</p>

The purpose of this study was to spatially represent shrub fuel matrices accurately and at fine resolution for use in physics-based fire behavior simulations. Terrestrial Light Detection and Ranging (T-LiDAR) was used to measure shrub fuel beds in laboratory settings before and after fire burned through them. The primary goals of this research were to produce highly descriptive data-sets that correctly identified the locations of biomass within 3-D space without destructive sampling, and to derive attributes for fuel elements within the shrubs. This research was completed in two phases. First, a series of experiments was conducted to test the capacity of a commercially available LiDAR instrument for making detailed measurements of diffuse shrubs. Second, model shrub fuel beds were produced and evaluated for accuracy. The research tested the T-LiDARs ability to characterize physical traits of shrubs within volumes, identified issues associated with misrepresenting the true geometry of scanned samples, developed sampling protocols for scanning shrubs prior to and following combustion experimentation, and built descriptive models of actual shrubs. The findings of this study show that T-LiDAR can be used effectively to estimate volume, structure, and biomass for individual shrubs. T-LiDAR derived models were shown to accurately predict mass of scanned shrubs (Adj. R2: 0.598, P-Value: 0.0012). The models produced show vast improvements from past estimations of physiological characteristics in fuels and fire behavior.

Montanas logging industry has changed significantly over the past two decades. Increased operating costs and subsequent diminishing returns, combined with a shifting paradigm in regards to active forest management have had significant impacts on the economic and demographic make-up of the industry. One way to address these changes and mitigate the associated challenges of continued viability is through analysis of the factors and constraints impacting routine operational costs. Two methods were employed to estimate regional logging costs and changes over time. First, to provide a resource for comparison between commonly-utilized logging equipment, the hourly owning and operating costs of select mechanical, ground-based machines were calculated using the machine rate method from data supplied by western Montana equipment dealers. Second, an expert opinion survey of Montana and Idaho loggers was conducted, asking respondents to provide a simulated bid for a harvest unit typical of this region. The results from each method were compared to historic cost data, and reasons for increased logging expense were studied and discussed for fixed and variable cost categories, as were the impacts of changing operating conditions on costs. Results from the machine rate analysis suggest that inflation-adjusted operating costs for ground-based equipment are 47-93% higher than 20 years ago. Expert opinion survey results suggest that though costs are increasing, loggers are bidding at levels lower than actual costs merely to stay in business. Research on the reasons for these increases showed that costs have increased across certain fixed and variable categories, namely in equipment purchase price, fuel, labor wages and benefits, and repair/maintenance expense. Further, the number of operational days per year has decreased, administrative costs have increased, and there is increasing concern over volatile market conditions and the uncertainty over guaranteed future work. Clearly, this situation should be of considerable concern to those interested in retaining this sector in Montana. Vigilant consideration of operating costs and productivity will become increasingly critical to maintaining current infrastructure and helping to ensure the future of active forest management in Montana.

Montanas logging industry has changed significantly over the past two decades. Increased operating costs and subsequent diminishing returns, combined with a shifting paradigm in regards to active forest management have had significant impacts on the economic and demographic make-up of the industry. One way to address these changes and mitigate the associated challenges of continued viability is through analysis of the factors and constraints impacting routine operational costs. Two methods were employed to estimate regional logging costs and changes over time. First, to provide a resource for comparison between commonly-utilized logging equipment, the hourly owning and operating costs of select mechanical, ground-based machines were calculated using the machine rate method from data supplied by western Montana equipment dealers. Second, an expert opinion survey of Montana and Idaho loggers was conducted, asking respondents to provide a simulated bid for a harvest unit typical of this region. The results from each method were compared to historic cost data, and reasons for increased logging expense were studied and discussed for fixed and variable cost categories, as were the impacts of changing operating conditions on costs. Results from the machine rate analysis suggest that inflation-adjusted operating costs for ground-based equipment are 47-93% higher than 20 years ago. Expert opinion survey results suggest that though costs are increasing, loggers are bidding at levels lower than actual costs merely to stay in business. Research on the reasons for these increases showed that costs have increased across certain fixed and variable categories, namely in equipment purchase price, fuel, labor wages and benefits, and repair/maintenance expense. Further, the number of operational days per year has decreased, administrative costs have increased, and there is increasing concern over volatile market conditions and the uncertainty over guaranteed future work. Clearly, this situation should be of considerable concern to those interested in retaining this sector in Montana. Vigilant consideration of operating costs and productivity will become increasingly critical to maintaining current infrastructure and helping to ensure the future of active forest management in Montana.

The availability and spatial distribution of forest treatment residues are prerequisites to supply chain development for bioenergy production. To accurately estimate potential residue quantities, data must be provided to simulate stand-level silviculture across the landscape of interest. However, biomass utilization assessments often consider broad regions where adequate data are not supplied. At present, these measures are addressed using strategic level assessments and broad-based management that may not be applicable to all areas of the landscape. This thesis introduces a new methodology for spatially describing stand-level treatment residue quantities based on detailed silvicultural prescriptions and site specific management. Using National Agricultural Imagery Program (NAIP) imagery, the forest is segmented into treatment units based on user defined size constraints. Using a remote sensing model based on NAIP imagery and Forest Inventory and Analysis plot data, these units are attributed with stand-level descriptions of basal area, tree density, above ground biomass, and quadratic mean diameter . The outputs are used to develop silvicultural prescriptions and estimate available treatment residues under three alternative management scenarios at a range of delivered prices per bone dried ton (bdt) to a nearby bioenergy facility in southwestern Colorado. Using a marginal cost approach where treatment costs were covered by merchantable yields, the breakeven delivered price of treatment residues in this study is $48.94 per bdt yielding 167,685 bdt following a 10 year management simulation at a 5,000 acre per year annual allowable treatment level.

Whitebark pine (WBP) is a keystone species on the brink of extinction, threatened by fire suppression, white pine blister rust, along with mountain pine beetle infestation and climate change. The Blackfoot Confederacy from the Northern Rockies region, as part of their traditional practices and Worldview, has long gathered the nutrient-rich seeds and cambium of whitebark pine as part of their subsistence. This paper demonstrates how the perspectives, indigenous intelligence and worldview of members of the Blackfoot Confederacy could inform and supplement western science and increase the probability of success in restoration efforts whitebark pine forest ecosystems. With Blackfoot Confederacy acculturation and cultural assimilation, their oral history of traditional practices have faded, and the wealth of traditional practices and indigenous intelligence about their natural world could fade away without it ever being adequately documented. Further efforts are necessary to identify and retrieve indigenous intelligence to provide better ecological understanding of whitebark pine forest ecosystems, to give greater acknowledgement of Indigenous ways of knowing, and to preserve the Blackfoot Confederacy and their cultural identity and integrity.