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Ecotourism emerged as an alternative form of tourism in the 1990s to mitigate the faults of conventional (mass) tourism in meeting the needs of sustainable development. It has since become widespread in Thailand and is adopted not only in natural areas but also in rural communities. Key elements of ecotourism include a focus on ecological resources, sustainable management, environmental education, and community participation. Community participation receives a high degree of consideration among developers in Thailand. Ecotourism (ET) is seen to support this concept and is increasingly geared in the direction of social development. These trends form the backdrop to this study on community participation in ecotourism development. The study applies a triangulation methodology to collect data by combining both qualitative and quantitative methods, combining theory and empirical study to analyse the context of how local people have participated in ecotourism development. The study pays particular attention to the practices and opinions of local people in recognition of communities' rights and responsibilities in controlling their own development. The empirical study was carried out at two levels, including a general survey by postal questionnaire (thirty-one respondents) and in-depth study in four areas (Umphang, Khiriwong, Sasom and Tha Madua). The research merges theory and practice into an analysis and empirical presentation throughout the study. Theoretically, the thesis is informed by political economy and political ecology approaches, together with the concept of participation in community development and tourism development models. The research found that many communities achieve a degree of self-management in offering tourism services such as homestays, guided tours, cultural performances and cultural products. Community ecotourism organisations have been established in most communities in order to serve these new activities and to create a collective management process. Similarities in pattern and differentiation in practices among many communities were supported by different outside initiatives, developed according to similar aims and involving similar processes, but there is no uniformity or single model that is effectively applied to all communities. One significant barrier for local communities to take a major role in ecotourism is the access to ecotourism resources, which are mostly located in protected areas and are controlled by state agencies. This has led them to promote primarily their own cultural resources. Consequently, these practical changes have led to a transformation of the dominant development concept from Ecotourism (ET) to Community-based Ecotourism (CBET). Results also show that most practices involve a level of cooperation in decision-making and action with other stakeholders who are in a better position to run tourism businesses. It is difficult for local communities to be empowered to control the whole situation, which is sometimes claimed to be the ultimate goal level of local participation. The demands of marketing and conflict in management among local people, together with the limitations in accessing natural resources, are the weakest points of and constraints on the communities. To deal with these limitations, communities try to create relationships with outsiders. To develop better management of community tourism, many communities rely on help and support from outside, especially from government agencies. This, however, impels the community to become dependent on outsiders. It is also hard for communities to generate a high level of income offering basic services, since there are many levels of demand from different types of ecotourists. In summary, the main contributions of this study are: an understanding of community tourism in Thailand; the experiences of ecotourism development in the community from the leading case studies; directions, roles and responsibilities of actors and community organisations in particular; a range of options for community action in support of a more participatory process in ecotourism development. Last but not least is a set of recommendations for community-based ecotourism development from the level of policy application to practical improvement at the community level.

Ecotourism emerged as an alternative form of tourism in the 1990s to mitigate the faults of conventional (mass) tourism in meeting the needs of sustainable development. It has since become widespread in Thailand and is adopted not only in natural areas but also in rural communities. Key elements of ecotourism include a focus on ecological resources, sustainable management, environmental education, and community participation. Community participation receives a high degree of consideration among developers in Thailand. Ecotourism (ET) is seen to support this concept and is increasingly geared in the direction of social development. These trends form the backdrop to this study on community participation in ecotourism development. The study applies a triangulation methodology to collect data by combining both qualitative and quantitative methods, combining theory and empirical study to analyse the context of how local people have participated in ecotourism development. The study pays particular attention to the practices and opinions of local people in recognition of communities' rights and responsibilities in controlling their own development. The empirical study was carried out at two levels, including a general survey by postal questionnaire (thirty-one respondents) and in-depth study in four areas (Umphang, Khiriwong, Sasom and Tha Madua). The research merges theory and practice into an analysis and empirical presentation throughout the study. Theoretically, the thesis is informed by political economy and political ecology approaches, together with the concept of participation in community development and tourism development models. The research found that many communities achieve a degree of self-management in offering tourism services such as homestays, guided tours, cultural performances and cultural products. Community ecotourism organisations have been established in most communities in order to serve these new activities and to create a collective management process. Similarities in pattern and differentiation in practices among many communities were supported by different outside initiatives, developed according to similar aims and involving similar processes, but there is no uniformity or single model that is effectively applied to all communities. One significant barrier for local communities to take a major role in ecotourism is the access to ecotourism resources, which are mostly located in protected areas and are controlled by state agencies. This has led them to promote primarily their own cultural resources. Consequently, these practical changes have led to a transformation of the dominant development concept from Ecotourism (ET) to Community-based Ecotourism (CBET). Results also show that most practices involve a level of cooperation in decision-making and action with other stakeholders who are in a better position to run tourism businesses. It is difficult for local communities to be empowered to control the whole situation, which is sometimes claimed to be the ultimate goal level of local participation. The demands of marketing and conflict in management among local people, together with the limitations in accessing natural resources, are the weakest points of and constraints on the communities. To deal with these limitations, communities try to create relationships with outsiders. To develop better management of community tourism, many communities rely on help and support from outside, especially from government agencies. This, however, impels the community to become dependent on outsiders. It is also hard for communities to generate a high level of income offering basic services, since there are many levels of demand from different types of ecotourists. In summary, the main contributions of this study are: an understanding of community tourism in Thailand; the experiences of ecotourism development in the community from the leading case studies; directions, roles and responsibilities of actors and community organisations in particular; a range of options for community action in support of a more participatory process in ecotourism development. Last but not least is a set of recommendations for community-based ecotourism development from the level of policy application to practical improvement at the community level.

The ecotourism industry is experiencing increasing popularity as the demand grows for tourism that is environmentally sensitive, informative, and beneficial for local communities. For over a decade, Lao PDR, an underdeveloped country, has been promoting its 20 National Protected Areas as ecotourism destinations. These ecotourism projects are positioned as tools for protecting natural resources and reducing poverty, and are generating hope for the creation of local sustainable development. At this point in time, however, the Lao government lacks effective strategies for ensuring their long term success. This thesis was designed to address this concern by analysing the potential for one of these projects, Xe Pian ecotourism, to contribute to local sustainable development. The current outcomes of the Xe Pian ecotourism project were analysed and input was sought from all stakeholders concerning ideas for desirable strategies. Kiet Ngong village, located inside the Xe Pian NPA, Lao PDR, was selected for case study. Data was gathered by employing mostly quantitative methods consisting of semi-structured interviews, informal and formal interviews, private walks and observation, and questionnaire surveys. The findings illustrated that ecotourism in Kiet Ngong has impacted local livelihoods and other environmental, economic, social, and cultural factors in both positive and negative ways. However, the positive effects of Xe Pian ecotourism were found to be more significant than the negative effects. Importantly, Kiet Ngong residents expressed optimism about the future of ecotourism and have claimed that any negative consequences cannot discourage their desire for continuing ecotourism development. This research also revealed that the stakeholders involved in the project are able to offer a variety of strategies for resolving problems that have arisen along the way. Results from this study identified three main points that need to be addressed in order to maintain Xe Pian ecotourism, namely the promotion of economic and political empowerment of the local population, the development of external and internal regulations, and the adoption of a community-based ecotourism approach. Further recommendations are offered for the policy planners of both the government and the project‘s administrative bodies, as well as for the residents of Kiet Ngong. These are followed by additional suggestions for further study.

Submitted by Maike Costa (maiksebas@gmail.com) on 2017-07-05T12:01:45Z No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 2811317 bytes, checksum: e09551deb18cd9a284c5cc0e3dd75f58 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-05T12:01:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 2811317 bytes, checksum: e09551deb18cd9a284c5cc0e3dd75f58 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-04-30 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Making reference to the practice of tourism in the Barra do Rio Mamanguape community located in the APA of the Barra do Rio Mamanguape - PB and the natural potential of the site for the practice of tourist activities, the purpose of this study sought to conduct a diagnosis of tourist community, analyzing their interrelationships to the participatory construction of Ecotourism Community Base. Analyze the dynamic tourism and its potential for tourism development is preliminary to the planning of tourism in a region action, especially for the tourism develops in a responsible manner while minimizing impacts to the environment and culture of indigenous communities. For purposes of analysis, literature searches were conducted primarily about the concepts that concern research. Shortly after empirical research with qualitative and quantitative basis were conducted from January 2014 to October 2014 in Barra do Rio Mamanguape community, with the help of tools like questionnaires and interviews with internal and external stakeholders of the local tourism development. Although surveys were conducted onsite for identification of in loco tourism and documentary research in order to recognize the tourist flows in the region. From the data analysis it was found the potential for participatory community building community-based ecotourism as regards the tourism potential, but for the development of fact, there is still much to be articulated not only by the interest of the community site, but the support from government to subsidize its construction. Although there is potential for its development, it is necessary a sharper insight into their future development, since the current impasse occurs from the sanction of the management plan for the conservation unit community is located, because through this rules for the use of territories which could draw the attention of private sector large for construction of tourism in the region, which would extinguish the time of the community in developing tourism in the region as a community will be dictated. However, protrudes through this research the importance of articulating the community, with government and non-government planning of participatory tourism agencies, preceding the establishment of the private tourism sector in the region. / Tomando por referência a prática do turismo na comunidade da Barra do Rio Mamanguape, localizada na APA da Barra do Rio Mamanguape - PB e as potencialidades naturais do local para a prática de atividades turísticas, a proposta desse estudo buscou realizar um diagnóstico turístico da comunidade, analisando suas interelações para a construção participativa do Ecoturismo de Base comunitária. Analisar a dinâmica turística e suas potencialidades para o desenvolvimento do turismo é ação preliminar para o planejamento da atividade turística de uma região, sobretudo para que o turismo se desenvolva de forma responsável, minimizando os impactos ao meio ambiente e à cultura das comunidades autóctones. Para fins de análise, primeiramente foram realizadas pesquisas bibliográficas acerca dos conceitos que tangem a pesquisa. Logo após, foram realizadas pesquisas empíricas com base quali-quantitativa no período de janeiro de 2014 à outubro de 2014 na comunidade da Barra do Rio Mamanguape, com o auxílio de ferramentas como, questionários e entrevistas com os atores internos e externos do desenvolvimento turístico da comunidade. Ainda foram realizadas pesquisas in loco para a identificação da oferta turística local e pesquisa documental afim de reconhecer o fluxos turístico da região. A partir da análise dos dados constatou-se o potencial da comunidade para a construção participativa do ecoturismo de base comunitária no que se refere as potencialidades turísticas, todavia quanto ao desenvolvimento de fato, ainda existe muito a ser articulado, não só pelo interesse da comunidade local, mas do apoio de entidades governamentais, para subsidiar a sua construção. Embora, haja potencialidades para o seu desenvolvimento, faz-se necessário uma visão mais aguçada sobre o seu desenvolvimento futuro, já que o impasse atual se dá a partir da sanção do plano de manejo da Unidade de conservação que a comunidade está inserida, pois através deste serão ditadas regras de utilização de territórios, o que poderá chamar a atenção do setor privado de grande porte para a construção do turismo na região, o que extinguiria a vez da comunidade em desenvolver o turismo de forma comunitária na região. Contudo, salienta-se através dessa pesquisa a importância da articulação da comunidade, com os órgãos governamentais e não governamentais para o planejamento do turismo participativo, antecedendo o estabelecimento do setor turístico privado na região.

My thesis focuses on the problems of ecotourism, or more precisely its borders from an anthropological perspective, using example of a typical Cambodian community named Chambok. Based on five months of research, together with ethnographic methods of research I found out that boundaries of ecotourism are complex, multi-layered, problematic and negotiated and also that there are so called "grey zones" encompassing them. It is the conceptualization of these zones and boundaries, which is my contribution to current anthropological debate about ecotourism, which has been largely left out until now.

The Peruvian government has used a top-down colonial approach to nature-based conservation. This approach has effectively marginalized Indigenous people located in designated protected areas. For the Matsiguenka communities inhabiting Manu National Park, such an approach has created socioeconomic and political problems. Ecotourism is given to them as the only socioeconomic development option for the acquisition of supplementary income to their subsistence lifestyle and for their integration into the global capitalist economy. My research questions include: 1) whether or not marginalized Indigenous groups are given a chance to negotiate their own cultural values, knowledge and practices within the context dominated by global capitalism forces, such as the international tourism industry, and 2) how neo-liberal strategies such as ecotourism, which is sold as an economic panacea for communities in out-of-the-way-places such as the Peruvian rainforest, work in practice. I draw upon narratives on ecotourism, collected in my five-month fieldwork, as told by the multiple stakeholders of ecotourism. I use these narratives to highlight the complexities, pitfalls and incongruent, hegemonic and predatory nature of ecotourism as it plays out in Manu National Park. Through their Multicommunal Enterprise Matsiguenka, these traditionally hunter and gatherer people are courageously and creatively venturing into the ecotourism industry hoping to benefit their communities. However, the “wild” competition in the “green” capitalist market makes this type of venture a great challenge. / October 2007

The Peruvian government has used a top-down colonial approach to nature-based conservation. This approach has effectively marginalized Indigenous people located in designated protected areas. For the Matsiguenka communities inhabiting Manu National Park, such an approach has created socioeconomic and political problems. Ecotourism is given to them as the only socioeconomic development option for the acquisition of supplementary income to their subsistence lifestyle and for their integration into the global capitalist economy. My research questions include: 1) whether or not marginalized Indigenous groups are given a chance to negotiate their own cultural values, knowledge and practices within the context dominated by global capitalism forces, such as the international tourism industry, and 2) how neo-liberal strategies such as ecotourism, which is sold as an economic panacea for communities in out-of-the-way-places such as the Peruvian rainforest, work in practice. I draw upon narratives on ecotourism, collected in my five-month fieldwork, as told by the multiple stakeholders of ecotourism. I use these narratives to highlight the complexities, pitfalls and incongruent, hegemonic and predatory nature of ecotourism as it plays out in Manu National Park. Through their Multicommunal Enterprise Matsiguenka, these traditionally hunter and gatherer people are courageously and creatively venturing into the ecotourism industry hoping to benefit their communities. However, the “wild” competition in the “green” capitalist market makes this type of venture a great challenge.

The Peruvian government has used a top-down colonial approach to nature-based conservation. This approach has effectively marginalized Indigenous people located in designated protected areas. For the Matsiguenka communities inhabiting Manu National Park, such an approach has created socioeconomic and political problems. Ecotourism is given to them as the only socioeconomic development option for the acquisition of supplementary income to their subsistence lifestyle and for their integration into the global capitalist economy. My research questions include: 1) whether or not marginalized Indigenous groups are given a chance to negotiate their own cultural values, knowledge and practices within the context dominated by global capitalism forces, such as the international tourism industry, and 2) how neo-liberal strategies such as ecotourism, which is sold as an economic panacea for communities in out-of-the-way-places such as the Peruvian rainforest, work in practice. I draw upon narratives on ecotourism, collected in my five-month fieldwork, as told by the multiple stakeholders of ecotourism. I use these narratives to highlight the complexities, pitfalls and incongruent, hegemonic and predatory nature of ecotourism as it plays out in Manu National Park. Through their Multicommunal Enterprise Matsiguenka, these traditionally hunter and gatherer people are courageously and creatively venturing into the ecotourism industry hoping to benefit their communities. However, the “wild” competition in the “green” capitalist market makes this type of venture a great challenge.

Thesis (MA (Geography and Environmental Studies)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research focuses on the black rhinoceros and ecotourism in three conservation areas in the Kunene region of Namibia. The reciprocal impact between black rhino and community-based ecotourism is analysed. The research is located in two communal conservancies, #Khoadi-//Hôas and Torra, and in a photographic tourism concession, the Palmwag Concession Area. The research aims to explore and describe the reciprocal impact of community-based ecotourism efforts and black rhino spatial movement patterns in three conservation areas in north-west Namibia. An in-depth literature review was undertaken on the reciprocal impact between rhino-tracking tourism and conservation. A comparison was also made between the effects of human-induced disturbance on spatial movement patterns of black rhinos and the perception of tourists about tracking black rhinos. The value of black rhinos to community-based ecotourism was also determined. Quantitative research methodology was used for this study. Explorations of objectives were conducted through direct field observation with the aid of radio-telemetry tracking and aerial surveying for data gathering. The researcher employed SRT (Save the Rhino Trust) trackers in the study areas to assist with the tracking. The sample consisted of 24 transmitter-fitted black rhino in the three conservation areas. Rhino not fitted with transmitters have been included in the sample for more accurate results. Four hundred questionnaires were distributed at four tourist lodges in the study area. The hypothesis that sustainable ecotourism does not influence black rhino spatial behaviour was rejected. Rhinos in the study were easily disturbed and did not readily return to undisturbed behaviour. Their major response to disturbance was to run away. The disturbance was influenced by their initial activity when found. The highest disturbance occurred early in observations. Rhinos illustrated similar causes of disturbance throughout the study sites. The Springbok River emerged as the area with the most severe reactions to disturbance. This was supported by home range data and ecological constraints. Analysis of tourist responses regarding rhino tracking indicated a high demand for and level of satisfaction. This was the single determining factor for tourists to return to the Kunene region to do rhino tracking again. Tourists were willing to pay close to market price to track black rhino. It is recommended that tracking of black rhino should be avoided in the Springbok River and Aub/Barab areas. Tracking protocols should stipulate that tracking should only be conducted early in the morning; that rhinos may only be approached from downwind; that observation time may not exceed 15 minutes; that groups must be kept small; and that the approach distance may not be less than 100 metres. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die fokus van die navorsing is op swart renosters en ekotoerisme in drie bewaringsgebiede in die Kunene streek van Namibia. Die wedersydse wisselwerking tussen swart renosters en gemeenskaps-gebaseerde ekotoerisme is nagevors. Die navorsing het plaasgevind in twee kommunale bewaringsgebiede, #Khoadi-//Hôas en Torra asook ‘n konsessie vir fotografie in die Palmwag Konsessie Gebied. Die doel van die navorsing was om die wedersydse wisselwerking van gemeenskapsgebaseerde ekotoerisme en swart renosters se geografiese bewegingspatrone in drie bewaringsareas in noordwes Namibië te ondersoek en te omskryf. ‘n Deeglike literatuurstudie is gedoen ten opsigte van die wedersydse wisselwerking tussen toerisme met die doel om renosters waar te neem deur spoorsny en bewaring van die spesies. Die uitwerking van versteuring deur mense op die geografiese bewegingspatrone van swart renosters is vergelyk met die persepsie van toeriste ten opsigte van spoorsny van swart renosters. Die waarde van swart renosters ten opsigte van ekotoerisme is ook bepaal. Kwantitatiewe navorsingsmetodologie is gebruik in die studie. Die doelstelling van die navorsing is uitgevoer deur direkte veld waarnemings met behulp van radio-telemetriese opsporing en data insameling met behulp van lugsensusse. Die navorser het spoorsnyers van SRT (Save the Rhino Trust), wat in die studiegebied werk, in diens geneem om van hulp te wees met die spoorsny van renosters. Die steekproef het bestaan uit 24 swart renosters toegerus met seintoestelle in drie bewaringsgebiede. Renosters wat nie seintoestelle gehad het nie, is ook in die steekproef ingesluit ten einde beter dekking te verkry. Vierhonderd vraelyste is by vier toeristeoorde in die studiegebied versprei. Die hipotese dat volhoubare ekotoerisme nie ‘n invloed uitoefen op die geografiese gedrag van swart renosters nie, is verwerp. Renosters in die studie-gebied is maklik versteur en het nie geredelik teruggekeer tot onversteurde gedrag nie. Hulle reaksie op versteuring was gekenmerk deur weg te hardloop. Die mate van versteuring is bepaal deur die renosters se aanvanklike aktiwiteit by opsporing. Die meeste versteuring het gedurende vroeë waarneming plaasgevind. Dieselfde oorsake van versteuring is in al drie gebiede gevind. Die Springbokrivier was die gebied waar die sterkste reaksies ten opsigte van versteuring bespeur is. Dit word ondersteun deur die grootte van die loopgebiede van die renosters en ekologiese beperkings van die gebied. Data-analise van toeriste-vraelyste het aangetoon dat daar ‘n groot aanvraag en belangstelling is in die spoorsny van renosters. Die grootste bepalende faktor vir toeriste om na die Kunene streek terug te keer, is om renosters te sien deur middel van spoorsny. Toeriste is gewillig om die heersende markprys vir spoorsny van renosters te betaal. Navorsingsaanbevelings sluit in dat spoorsny van swart renosters in die Springbokrivier en Aub/Barab gebiede vermy word. Spoorsny-protokol moet stipuleer dat dit net in die vroeë oggend gedoen word, dat renosters slegs van onderkant die wind genader word, waarnemingstyd mag nie 15 minute oorskry nie, groepe moet klein wees en die afstand vanaf die diere mag nie nader as 100 meter wees nie.