Department of Ecology and Resource Management / PhDENV / The main aim of the research was to contribute means for converting conventional, high-input production systems to more sustainable ecological systems, thereby improving the sustainability of macadamia production and ultimately contributing to food security. This was achieved by a) investigating the potential use of cover crops and compost to enhance soil quality in macadamia orchards and b) investigating the potential use of use of cover crops and orchard heterogeneity to control stinkbug pests that target macadamia crops. Field experiments were conducted in three phases: phase one tested the potential of six cover crops for crop protection (as trap crops) and simultaneously for soil restoration or fertility enhancement purposes in macadamia orchards. Phase two repeated the trials of phase one (both soil restoration and trap crops) but with modifications to both categories. Soil restoration treatments were conducted with trees which were growing in what appeared to be healthy soils, and then repeated with trees in the same orchard where the topsoil had been degraded (totally removed) by agricultural operations. The third phase repeated the trap crop trials only, but this time on three different study areas (all commercial farms) with the single cover crop which performed the best as a trap crop during phase two. Trials were modified from the first to the last phase to overcome practical implementation problems encountered along the way and to adapt to local conditions experienced in the commercial macadamia farming systems which served as research sites. Diversity of natural orchard vegetation was enhanced in phase three to improve conditions for natural predators as part of the trap crop treatments in the last phase and cover crops were finally first composted and then returned to the root zones of the macadamia trees as part of the soil quality enhancement treatments in the second phase. The results from the trap crop trials shows a significant effect of trap crops combined with increased orchard diversity in reducing unsound kernel percentages caused by stinkbug pests and demonstrate that trap crops combined with an increase in orchard diversity could be utilized in macadamia orchards as a more sustainable alternative to inorganic pesticides against the stinkbug complex. The most notable changes in the soil that took place with soil quality enhancement treatments were the significant increases in soil phosphorous content and pH which resulted not in an improvement in soil quality in terms of these two indicators but revealed an important issue about the use of compost containing animal manure originating from dairies or feedlots. In summary however, it was clear that although not all the soil quality indicators that were employed to assess changes in the soil with compost treatments improved significantly, a holistic consideration of all indicators portrays an overall improvement which was particularly significant in the degraded soil plots where the topsoil had been removed by prior agricultural activities. / NRF

MSCAGR (Plant Production) / Department of Plant Production / Poor soil fertility caused by inadequate supply of nutrients on soil is one of the major constraints limiting crop production especially in the Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo, South Africa. Therefore, management practices such as application of organic manure to minimize soil infertility is considered as good practice for smallholder farmers. This study aimed at evaluating the effect of macadamia husk compost on selected soil properties as well as the growth and yield of Chinese cabbage on sandy loam soil. A field experiment was carried out during 2018 and 2019 winter season at the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) research farm in Levubu. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 4 treatments (control (zero)), inorganic fertilizer (100:60:60 NPK Kg ha-1) and compost at 15t ha-1 & 30t ha-1 replicated 3 times. Soil was analyzed before planting and after harvesting to determine the influence of applied compost on selected physical properties (soil bulk density and water holding capacity) and chemical properties (soil pH, soil organic matter, soil organic C, EC, total N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Al, Zn and Mn). Number of leaves, fresh mass, dry mass and leaf area was collected at three harvests interval (28, 46 and 74 days after transplanting). After each harvest period, leaves were analysed for nutrient content (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, Mn and B). During the final harvest crops were uprooted and root biomass (fresh mass, dry mass and root length) were recorded. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) were conducted on all data using Genstat package 18th addition. Differences between treatment means were separated using the least significant differences (LSD) procedure and correlations analysis was determined using Pearson’s simple correlation coefficient. Macadamia husk compost application had a significant effect on soil bulk density and water holding capacity. Addition of macadamia husk compost significantly increased soil pH, OC, N, C: N K, P, Mg, Ca, Na, Al, Zn, Ca and Mn. In contrast, addition of macadamia husk compost had no effect on soil EC. Yield components (number of leaves, fresh mass, dry mass), root biomass, root length and leaf area increased with application of macadamia husk compost. Yield components, root biomass, root length and leaf area were significantly affected (p<0.01) by harvesting time. Yield components in the second cropping season was greater than yield components in the first season. Macadamia husk compost application showed no significant effect on leaf nutrient content of Chinese cabbage. However, leaf nutrient content was affected by harvesting time. It is evident from the results of this study that macadamia husk compost affects soil fertility and plant production. The results suggest that macadamia husk compost has a potential to be used as a reliable fertilizer by famers especially smallholder farmers who struggle to buy inorganic fertilizer because they are expensive. Since this study was conducted over two seasons and compost effect tend to be long term, further research is needed on application of macadamia husk compost on soil properties and yield of other crops over wide range of soils. / NRF

<p>With rising temperatures, urbanization, population growth, improving economic wellbeing, decarbonization and electrification efforts, the demand for space cooling and heating equipment is continuously increasing around the world. To counteract the effect of rising demand for air conditioners and heat pumps on total energy consumption, peak electricity demand, and emissions, it is crucial to promote the development and market penetration of energy-efficient systems. Establishing minimum energy performance standards (MEPS), energy labeling and utility programs are some of the effective and tested methods for achieving this goal. The technical basis for these energy efficiency standards is a testing and rating procedure for estimating equipment seasonal performance from laboratory tests. Although the current rating procedures provide standardized metrics to compare different equipment performances, they fail to appropriately characterize the field representative performance of systems by not considering the effects of: 1) test unit embedded controls, thermostat, and realistic interactions with the building load and dynamics; 2) different climate zones and building types; and 3) and other integrated accessories for improving energy efficiency such as economizer for rooftop units (RTUs). Therefore, current approaches for performance ratings neither incentives the development and implementation of improved system and control designs nor consumers with a metric that represents the advanced systems' actual energy savings. To address this, a load-based testing methodology that enables dynamic performance evaluation of equipment with its integrated controls, thermostat, and other accessories was recently proposed. The test methodology is based on the concept of emulating the response of a representative building conditioned by the test unit in a test lab using a virtual building model. </p> <p>In this work, the proposed load-based testing methodology was further extended, evaluated, and validated for residential heat pumps to integrate it into next-generation energy efficiency testing and rating procedures and to serve as a tool for engineers to develop and validate improved control algorithms in a laboratory setting. Further, a load-based testing method for evaluating the dynamic performance of RTUs with integrated economizers was also developed and demonstrated.</p> <p>A load-based testing approach previously developed for residential cooling equipment is extended for heat pump heating-mode and demonstrated for a variable-speed system. The heat pump's typical dynamic behaviors are captured along with controller imperfections that aren't reflected in current testing approaches. Further, a comprehensive comparison was performed between the proposed load-based testing approach to the current steady-state testing approach in the U.S., AHRI 210/240, based on performance evaluation of three residential variable-speed heat pumps to understand the differences and their significance for the next-generation rating procedure. For cooling mode, steady-state testing estimates higher seasonal performance, but for heating mode, the steady-state testing approach estimates higher seasonal performance for warmer climates and is comparable for colder climates. The load-based testing methodology was validated by comparing the laboratory performance of a heat pump to that of a residential building in a controlled environment. The virtual building modeling approach for building loads and thermal dynamics effectively captured these characteristics of the house. The heat pump's cycling rate response with run-time fraction, which represents the unit's overall dynamic response, matched well between lab load-based tests and house tests. The test unit's COP difference for cooling and heating tests was within 3% between the two facilities, except for 9% in 95°F and 6% in 104°F cooling dry-coil test intervals. To evaluate the applicability of the developed load-based testing methodology as next-generation rating standards, its repeatability and reproducibility were assessed based on multiple heat pump round-robin tests conducted in two labs. Overall, reasonable to good repeatability was observed in load-based test results in both labs, however, poor reproducibility was observed except for one heat pump heating mode results. A root cause analysis of the observed differences along with recommendations for a next-generation rating approach are presented. This work aided in the development of a CSA (Canadian Standards Association) standard EXP07:19 and its subsequent revision for equipment rating based on load-based testing.</p> <p>The application of the load-based testing methodology as a tool for the development and evaluation of a residential heat pump controller design was demonstrated. Further, a load-based testing methodology was developed and demonstrated for the dynamic performance evaluation of RTUs with integrated economizers in a test laboratory setting. Recommendations for future work to further develop and improve the repeatability, reproducibility, and representativeness of the load-based testing and rating approach for residential and commercial air conditioners and heat pumps are summarized at the end of the dissertation. </p>