[pt] Na busca de novos quimioterápicos diferentes dos clássicos derivados de cisplatina, ligantes derivados aroíl-hidrazônicos e complexos de cobre(II) aparecem como compostos promissores. Esta tese relata o desenvolvimento e a síntese de uma nova combinação desses compostos a partir de oito ligantes bases de Schift aroíl-hidrazônicos inéditos e seus Cu2-complexos derivados de sais de perclorato ou acetato 1‒14. Os complexos de cobre(II) obtidos contêm em suas estruturas modelos estruturais de sítios ativos de algumas metaloenzimas. Os compostos foram amplamente caracterizados utilizando várias técnicas espectroscópicas e analíticas. As análises por difração de raios X de quatro ligantes e cinco complexos são descritas em detalhes nessa tese. A estabilidade dos compostos foi estudada em meio celular e sua atividade biológica foi analisada. Os resultados incluem um estudo da interação de dois ligantes derivados de tiofeno (H3L1) ou furano (H3L2) e seus respectivos complexos 1 e 2 (primeiro conjunto de compostos) com uma proteína e DNA do timo de vitelo (calf thymus DNA), com o objetivo de medir a afinidade de ligação à albumina sérica bovina e ao DNA usando as técnicas de absorção de UV/Visível e/ou fluorescência. Adicionalmente, foi visto através de técnicas de espalhamento de luz que a interação entre os compostos e a proteína é reversível. Uma importante contribuição do presente trabalho foi analisar a capacidade de clivagem do DNA plasmidial de dois complexos 1 e 2 usando a técnica de espalhamento de luz dinâmico. Neste trabalho são estudadas as alterações do raio hidrodinâmico do DNA plasmidial causada pelo corte nas hélices resultante da presença dos complexos. Ensaios de citotoxicidades em algumas células cancerígenas, revelaram a alta capacidade dos ligantes (H3L1 and H3L2) e dos complexos (1 e 2) de induzir a morte celular. Ademais, as muitas propriedades biológicas, incluindo a atividade anticancerígena do fragmento isoxazol, motivaram sua inclusão na estrutura dos ligantes H3L3 and H2L4 e complexos 3‒6 (segundo conjunto de compostos). A combinação dessas estruturas pode vir a ser promissora na procura de novos medicamentos contra o câncer. A interação dos derivados dos ligantes isoxazol-aroíl-hidrazônicos com o DNA foi diretamente estudada por espectroscopia na absorbância e fluorescência, usando as propriedades luminescentes apresentadas pelos ligantes. No caso dos complexos, o ensaio de deslocamento de brometo de etídio revelou uma afinidade importante através da intercalação nos ácidos nucleicos da sequência do DNA. Adicionalmente, este trabalho conseguiu demostrar que ligantes e complexos contendo um braço fenólico no lugar de um braço piridínico melhoram a citotoxicidade in vitro em células de câncer de mama epitelial humano, alcançando a faixa nanomolar. A capacidade de metalação e transmetalação dos ligantes binucleares H3L3 e H2L4 e seus complexos de cobre 3‒6 com Fe(II), Fe(III) e Zn(II) provenientes do meio biológico foi verificada como uma estratégia adicional para induzir a morte de células cancerígenas. Além disso, para estudar a interação dos compostos com o sistema biológico e/ou para demostrar a permeabilidade celular dos compostos, os ligantes (H3L5‒H3L7) e complexos (7‒12) foram funcionalizados com fluoróforos potentes como pireno (H3L5) (conjunto três de compostos), benzopiranotiofeno (H3L6) ou borodipirrometeno (H3L7) (conjunto quatro de compostos) associados aos fragmentos hidrazônicos. Estudos de microscopia de fluorescência do ligando H3L7 comprovaram sua presença dentro de células de câncer. Também, análises de co-localização para organelas mostraram a afinidade dos ligantes com a mitocôndria. Finalmente, motivada pelas propriedades biológicas da molécula isoniaziada e seu uso em tratamentos de quimioterapia, esta tese mostra de forma general a síntese, caracterização e citotoxicidade de um novo ligante isoniazídico (H2L8) e seus complexos de perclorato ou acetato de cobre(II) 13 e 14 (conjunto cinco de compostos) visando realizar um pedido de patente. / [en] On the search of new chemotherapeutic agents differing from the classic cisplatin family drugs, aroylhydrazonic derivatives and their copper(II) complexes appear as promising compounds. This thesis reports on the design and syntheses of a novel combination of them through eight new aroylhydrazones and their fourteen perchlorate and/or acetate Cu2-complexes 1‒14. The obtained bioinspired copper(II) complexes constitute structural models for the active sites of some type 3 copper enzymes. The compounds were fully characterized using various spectroscopic and analytical techniques. X-ray diffraction structures for four ligands and five complexes are described in detail. Compounds stability was studied in cellular medium and their biological activity was examined. The results include a large study on the interaction of two thiophene (H3L1) or furan (H3L2) ligand derivatives and their respective μ-hydroxo dicopper complexes 1 and 2 (first set of compounds) respectively, with bovine serum albumin protein and calf thymus DNA using different spectroscopic techniques, which include the binding affinity to BSA and DNA using UV/Visible and/or fluorescence techniques. Additionally, scattering techniques revealed that the interaction between the compounds and BSA induces reversible aggregation of the biomolecules. As an important contribution of the present work, the plasmid DNA cleavage ability of the complexes 1 and 2 was studied by Dynamic Light Scattering. The changes of hydrodynamic radius values of pBR322 plasmid DNA are correlated to the nick induced by the complexes in the helices. Cytotoxic assays on some cancer cells revealed the high ability of H3L1 and H3L2, and complexes 1 and 2 to induce cell death. On the other hand, the many biological properties, including anticancer activity, of the isoxazole molecule, motivated the inclusion of this moiety in two ligands H3L3 and H2L4 and four complexes 3‒6 (second set of compounds). Interaction of these isoxazole-aroylhydrazonic ligand derivatives with DNA was directly studied by absorbance and fluorescence spectroscopy, as a result of the fluorescence properties displayed by the ligands. In the case of the isoxazole-aroylhydrazonic complexes-DNA interaction, the ethidium bromide displacement assay revealed significant affinity by intercalation binding mode of the nucleic acid in the DNA sequence. Additionally, this work successfully demonstrated that ligands and complexes containing a phenol pendant arm instead of a pyridine one improve the in vitro cytotoxicity on human epithelial breast cancer cells, attaining nanomolar range. Metal chelation and transmetallation ability of binucleating ligands H3L3 and H2L4 and their copper complexes 3‒6 with Fe(II), Fe(III) and Zn(II) from the biological medium was verified as an additional cell death induction anticancer strategy. Moreover, to study the interaction of the compounds with the biological system and to demonstrate their cell permeability, ligands (H3L5‒H3L7) and complexes (7‒12) were functionalized in their hydrazone moieties with potent fluorophores, such pyrene (H3L5) (set three of compounds), benzopyranothiophene (H3L6), or boron-dipyrromethene (H3L7) derivatives (set four of compounds). Fluorescence microscopy studies proved the presence of ligand H3L7 inside cancer cells, proving its ability to pass through the cell membrane. Besides, co-localization analysis for organelles showed the affinity of this ligand for the mitochondria. Finally, motived by the wide spectrum of biological properties of the isoniazid molecule and its use in chemotherapy, this thesis reports the syntheses, characterization and cytotoxicity studies on cancer cells of a new isonicotinoyl hydrazone ligand (H2L8) and its perchlorate or acetate copper(II) complexes 13 and 14 (set five of compounds), which are involved in a patent request.

Tyrosine (4-hydroxyphenylalanine) is one of the naturally occurring 22 amino acids. The importance of tyrosine is due to the presence of its phenolic side chain. In biological systems, the tyrosyl residue in proteins is found to be sulfated, phosphorylated and nitrated. Upon oxidation with dioxygenases, Tyr residue forms dopaquinone which undergoes a series of reactions ultimately leading to the formation of melanin. Tyr is also a precursor to neurotransmitters (catechol amines namely dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine) and thyroid harmones T4 and T3. Tyr residue is also found to be cross linked with other amino acid residues in the active site of certain proteins. Tyr-Tyr cross link has also been associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Tyr residue in proteins has been targeted widely for site selective modifications. A series of chemical modifications like acylation, allylation, ene-type reaction, iodination with radiolabeled iodine, formation of Tyr-Tyr cross link with oxidants and aminoalkylation have been carried out on surface exposed Tyr residues in proteins. Apart from these chemical modifications of Tyr on protein surface, a couple of free Tyr-based scaffolds have also been developed for different applications. Similar to tyrosine-based scaffolds, several phenolate-based scaffolds have also been developed for various applications. Several phenolate-based binuclear metal complexes have been developed as mimics of the active site of metalloenzymes. Moreover, by varying the substituent in the phenolate scaffold, the redox properties of metal bound in these systems can be tuned. The thesis consists of five chapters. The first chapter gives general idea about tyrosine-and phenolate-based scaffolds. The first chapter also gives introduction to zinc(II)-containing enzymes metallo-β-lactamases (mβls) and phosphotriesterase (PTE) and their functional mimics. The importance of copper(II)-containing enzyme, catechol oxidase and its mimics has also been discussed. The significance and formation of o-dityrosine (Tyr-Tyr cross link) has also been briefly discussed. In chapters 2 and 3, a couple of phenolate-based ligands and their corresponding zinc(II)- and copper(II)- complexes have been synthesized and have been checked as mimics of zinc(II)-containing enzymes (mβl and PTE) and copper-containing enzyme catechol oxidase, respectively. In chapter 4, a series of tyrosine-based ligands have been designed and their in situ copper(II) complexes have been tested as mimics of catechol oxidase. In chapter 5, the effect of neighboring amino acid in the formation of Tyr-Tyr cross link has been studied. In chapter 2, a couple of zinc(II) complexes have been synthesized and studied as mimic of zinc(II)-containing enzymes mβl and PTE. Metallo-β-lactamases (mβls) are zinc(II)-containing enzymes which exist in both mono- and binuclear forms. Mβls are capable of hydrolyzing β-lactam ring in antibiotics and make them inactive (Scheme 1(A)). To date, an effective inhibitor for this enzyme is not known. Hence, in order to understand the nature of the enzyme a couple of synthetic mimics are known. However, in most of the synthetic mimics both the metal ions are in symmetrical environment. Therefore, we have attempted to design a few unsymmetrical phenolate- based ligands and their zinc(II) complexes. The unsymmetrical phenolate-based ligands HL1 and HL2 have been synthesized by sequential mannich reaction with formaldehyde and two different amines. Complexes 1 and 2 are obtained from ligands HL1 and HL2, respectively (Figure 1). For comparative purpose, the symmetrical ligands HL3 and HL4, and their zinc(II)-complexes 3 and 4 have been synthesized by reported procedures (Figure 1). The efficiency of the complexes 1-4 towards the hydrolysis of oxacillin has been studied. It has been observed that the binuclear zinc(II) complexes with metal-bound water molecule 1 and 4 are able to hydrolyze oxacillin at much faster rates compared to that of mononuclear complexes 2 and 3. However, between 1 and 4, there is no appreciable change in activity, indicating that the slight change in ligand environment has no significant role. PTE is a binuclear zinc(II)-containing enzyme, capable of hydrolyzing toxic organphosphotriesters to less toxic diesters (Scheme 1(B)). As the binuclear active site of mβl is comparable with that of phosphotriesterase (PTE), PTE activity of complexes 1-4 has been studied. Although the binuclear zinc(II)-complexes 1 and 4 are able to hydrolyze PNPDPP (p-nitrophenyl diphenyl phosphate) initially, these complexes are not able to effect complete hydrolysis. This is due to the inhibition of complexes 1 and 4 by hydrolyzed product, diester. However with mononuclear complexes 2 and 3 no such inhibitions is possible, and are capable of hydrolyzing PNPDPP at comparatively faster rates than 1 and 4. Scheme 1. Function of metallo-β-lactamase and phosphotriesterase. (A) Hydrolysis of β-lactam ring in antibiotics by metallo-β-lactamase. (B) Hydrolysis of organophosphotriesters to diesters by phosphotriesterase. Figure 1. Chemical structures of ligands HL1-HL4 and their corresponding zinc(II)complexes 1-4. In chapter 3, a couple of copper(II) complexes have been synthesized and their catechol oxidase activity has been studied. Catechol oxidase belongs to the class of oxidoreductase and it catalyzes the oxidation of a wide range of o-diphenols to o-quinones through the reduction of molecular oxygen to water (Scheme 2). A four new µ4-oxo-bridged tetranuclear copper(II) complexes (5-8) have been synthesized (Figure 2). The ability of these complexes to catalyze the oxidation of 3,5-DTBC (3,5-Di-tert-butylcatechol) to 3,5-DTBQ (3,5-Di-tert-butylquinone) has been studied. A detailed kinetic study has been carried out which reveals that the complexes with exogenous acetate ligands (5 and 6) are better catechol oxidase mimics compared to complexes with exogenous chloride ligands (7 and 8). This observation is due to the labile nature of acetate compared to chloride, as the displacement of exogenous ligand is essential for the binding of substrate to the catalyst. Based on mass spectral analysis a plausible mechanism has been proposed for the oxidation of 3,5-DTBC by these complexes. Scheme 2. Oxidation of catechol by catechol oxidase. Figure 2. Chemical structures of copper(II) complexes 5-8. In chapter 4, by following the analogy between phenol and tyrosine, a series of binucleating ligands of tyrosine or tyrosyl dipeptides (Figures 3 and 4) have been synthesized by Mannich reaction under mild conditions. The in situ complexation of these fifteen new binucleating ligands (HL5-HL19) with copper(II) chloride has been observed. In situ complexation was followed by UV-visible and mass spectral analysis. These in situ complexes were able to oxidize 3,5-DTBC at slower rate compared to that of the tetranuclear complexes reported in chapter 3. The catecholase activity has also been tested with the addition of base. A slight enhancement in activity of in situ complexes has been observed in the presence of base. Based on mass spectral evidences, a plausible mechanism for the oxidation of catechol by these in situ complexes has been proposed. Figure 3. Binucleating ligands (Mannich bases) of boc-protected tyrosine and tyrosyl dipeptides. Figure 4. Binucleating ligands (Mannich bases) of boc-deprotected tyrosyl dipeptides. In chapter 5 of the thesis, the effect of neighboring amino acid residue in the formation of o,o-dityrosine (Tyr-Tyr cross link) has been studied. o,o’-Dityrosine is a specific marker for oxidative/nitrosative stress. The increase in concentration of dityrosine is associated with several disease states. A detailed study has been carried out in order to find out the effect of neighboring amino acid residues in the rate of formation of dityrosine of several tyrosyl dipeptides. The formation of dityrosine has been carried out with horseradish peroxidase(HRP) and H2O2 (Scheme 3). Except Cys-Tyr, all other tyrosyl dipeptides, form corresponding dityrosine with HRP/ H2O2. With Cys-Tyr, the formation of corresponding disulfide is observed. The appreciably higher rate of dityrosine formation of Phe-Tyr is attributed to the presence of strong hydrophobic environment around the active site of HRP. Among the polar tyrosyl peptides, the positively charged peptides (Arg-Tyr, Lys-Tyr) undergo dityrosine formation at much faster rate compared to that of negatively charged dipepptides (Asp-Tyr, Glu-Tyr). This trend is in accordance with the pKa of neighboring amino acid residues. The positively charged neighboring residues with higher pKa stabilizes ionized tyrosine, hence the rate of dityrosine formation is higher for them. As positively charged neighboring residue enhances the rate of dityrosine formation, the effect of externally added L-Arg has been studied. A coupling of a few biologically relevant tyrosine derivatives has been studied. The derivatives in which one of the ortho-positions of tyrosine is blocked, does not undergo coupling under the experimental conditions employed. Scheme 3. Formation of dityrosine of Ile-Tyr from Ile-Tyr in the presence of H2O2 catalyzed by HRP. (For structural formula and figures pl refer the abstract pdf file)