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The purpose of this paper was to identify the elements and the alloys that five objects found in Birka consist of and to examine whether there are any significant differences between the presumably imported and domestic objects. The material was analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) which was equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS) in order to identify the elements that are present and the alloys that the objects are made of. Then the SEM results were compared with the results of previous analyzes that have been performed on finds from Birka in order to investigate how the objects differ in elemental composition and to find out if there are any significant differences between them. The results showed that the objects’ content of the elements analyzed varies as the copper alloys the objects are made of. Only a few objects are made of the same type of copper alloy. A sword chape included in the material and a bridle mount that was analyzed in 2006 are both made of lead bronze. Two oriental mounts included in the material and a sword chape which was analyzed in 2006 are all made of lead bronze in which zinc has been added. There are no significant differences in composition between the presumably imported and domestic objects, but overall lead seems to be a metal that was used more in the domestic production.

Multi-material structures (MMSs) are attractive due to their unique advantages in achieving tailored properties at different locations in a single part. Producing such structures by additive manufacturing has been gaining more and more attention because of the beneficial characteristics of additive manufacturing processes such as its ability in building complex geometries, shortening producing chains, and most importantly, easily integrating with multi-material feeding systems. This PhD thesis investigates the potential of MMSs fabricated by directed energy deposition (DED) using tool steel and copper alloy. Specifically, AISI H13 hot work tool steel is deposited on copper-beryllium alloy (CuBe) substrate using three deposition strategies: directly depositing H13 on CuBe (H13/CuBe), SS316L buffer (H13/SS316L/CuBe), and commercially pure nickel buffer (H13/Ni/CuBe), aiming to minimize cracking issues. The morphology of single-track, single-layer, and multi-layer specimens is analyzed. The microstructure of deposited specimens is also investigated, along with its mechanical and thermal properties, such as microhardness, wear resistance, load-bearing capability (LBC), and thermal conductivity. The results show that directly depositing H13 on CuBe cannot avoid cracking in the H13 layers while preheating the CuBe substrate at 150℃ and 250℃ reduces the cracking tendency but damages the strength of the CuBe substrate due to over-aging while introducing difficulty to manage processing procedure. Using SS316L buffer can suppress the crack extension in H13 cladding due to a barrier mechanism, i.e., its ability to reduce the Cu penetration into H13 layers. However, SS316L itself is prone to cracking when directly deposited on the CuBe substrate as a buffer layer. Through analysis of cracking morphology, parameter effects, and element distribution, it was possible to identify solidification cracking as the primary cracking mechanism in all specimens. Two metallurgical factors, solidification temperature range and amount of terminal liquid, were found to dominate the cracking tendency. The introduction of Cu into steel can significantly extend the solidification temperature range, thereby increasing the susceptibility to cracking. However, as the Cu composition continuously increases, the cracking susceptibility decreases due to the backfilling of the terminal liquid into cracks resulting in a healing effect. The solidification paths of the Fe-Cu binary system were calculated as a function of Cu composition. Using this data, a map was generated reporting the solidification temperature range and terminal liquid amount as a function of Cu composition for the Fe-Cu binary system. Even if only to a first approximation (the effect of alloying elements in both, steel and CuBe alloy), this map can be used as a tool to estimate the cracking susceptibility of steel/copper alloy MMSs deposited by DED. The experimental results are in good agreement with thermodynamic calculations. Based on this analysis, a pure nickel buffer strategy was selected and proved to be effective in minimizing the cracking issue in H13 due to the narrow solidification temperature range of Ni-Cu and Ni-Fe binary systems induced the high solubility of Ni in Fe and Cu. By employing this strategy, crack-free specimens were produced. The high hardness of the H13 single-layer cladding, with an average value of 740 HV, provided a significant improvement in wear resistance compared to the CuBe (400 HV). However, in multi-layer specimens, a gradual decrease in microhardness of H13 cladding from the outer to the inner layers was observed due to the mixing of remelted soft buffer materials into H13 and the in-situ tempering effect in the previous deposited H13 layers. The above result, further confirms that the load-bearing capability (LBC) cannot be infinitely improved by adding more H13 layers. In general, in the low loading range (From 5 to 10 kN), the LBC of MMS specimens was higher than the CuBe due to the higher hardness of outer H13 layers. However, it became lower in the high loading range due to the presence of soft sublayer materials such as softened martensite, soft buffer layers (H316L = 260 HV or HNi = 130 HV), and the heat-affected zones in the CuBe substrate. The thermal conductivity of MMS specimens first drops rapidly to half of the original value as the cladding thickness ratio (tcladding/tCuBe) increases from 0 to around 20%. After that, the decrease becomes slower, with a further reduction of around 37% in thermal conductivity as the cladding thickness ratio increases from 20% up to 50%. Therefore, a tradeoff between mechanical and thermal properties must be considered looking for the application of these cladding systems. A proper cladding thickness ratio of around 20% is recommended to achieve reasonably high strength while still maintaining thermal conductivity at an acceptable level. Overall, these findings have important implications for the selection of appropriate materials and processing parameters to optimize the mechanical and thermal properties of tool steel/copper alloy MMSs deposited by DED.

O objetivo do presente trabalho consistiu no desenvolvimento de fios de liga de cobre-cromo-zircônio (CuCrZr) em uma composição estabelecida em Cu-0,7%Cr- 0,1%Zr (em massa). Nas etapas desenvolvidas, foram feitos botões de cobrecromo (CuCr) e cobre-zircônio (CuZr) em um forno a arco elétrico de eletrodo não consumível, sendo esses botões, posteriormente, fundidos junto com cargas de cobre em um cadinho de alumina (Al2O3) inserido no interior de um vaso de aço inoxidável, que serviu como suporte. Após a fusão dos botões e cargas, o banho foi vazado em uma coquilha de cobre, obtendo-se os tarugos da liga de cobre. Dos tarugos em estado bruto de fusão, foram retiradas amostras para ensaios de dureza Vickers. Nesses tarugos foi feito um tratamento térmico de homogeneização a 910 °C por 2 h. Os tarugos foram posteriormente trabalhados mecanicamente a frio por forjamento rotativo seguido de trefilação, para obtenção final dos fios no calibre de 2,174 mm. Os fios passaram por dois tratamentos térmicos de recristalização, um a 510 °C por 1 h e outro de 480 °C por 5 h. Os fios foram caracterizados mecanicamente por ensaios de tração e de dureza e os resultados foram comparados com dados experimentais da literatura. / The objective of this work is the development of copper alloy wire-chromiumzirconium (CuCrZr) in a chemical composition Cu-0,7% Cr-0,1% Zr (weight). The main steps were, buttons were made of copper-chromium (CuCr) and copperzirconium (CuZr) in an electric arc furnace, these buttons were later melted with copper charge in a alumina crucible, placed inside a stainless steel can which served as a support. After melting buttons and charge, the bath was poured into a copper chill mold obtaining copper alloy billets. From the as cast cooper alloy billets, small samples were cut for Vickers hardness and then, a homogenizing heat treatment at 910 °C for 2 h was performed. The billets were then mechanically cold worked by swaging followed by drawing to obtain the wires with a diameter of 2,174 mm. The wires are mechanically characterized using tensile and hardness testing after recrystallization heat treatment at 510 °C for 1 h and at 480 °C for 5 h and the results were compared with experimental data from literature.

Aluminum based reactive nanomaterials have extensive applications in many fields including solid propellants, pyrotechnics, and catalytic reactions. One recent example is the novel concept of using nanostructured energetic particles for energy storage where the controlled exothermic reaction is the key to control the energy release process. It is of primary interest to understand the thermodynamics, kinetics, morphological and structural properties of these particles during the exothermic reaction. While the physiochemical properties of the monometallic powders are determined only by their size, the properties of bimetallic nanoalloys can be also engineered by their constituent compositions. This thesis conducts a systematic experimental investigation of the oxidation, ignition, and combustion of nano aluminum particles (nAl) and nanoalloys such as nanoscale aluminium-copper (n-AlCu) and aluminium-zinc (n-AlZn). The oxidation experiments are conducted by a TGA/DSC system with detailed characterisation of particles before and after the experiments by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the Nanosizer, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and powder X-ray diffractionmetry (XRD). In the TGA/DSC analysis, nanomaterials are oxidized either at constant temperature or under different heating rates in the controlled atmosphere of air or nitrogen. A unique early ignition reaction is observed at the high heating rates for nAl and n-AlCu, which is associated with the effect of polymorphic phase transformation of the alumina shell and the early melting of the aluminum core. Different to the conventional shrink-core concept, hollow structures, i.e. nanoholes, in the central regions of nAl are observed and a phenomenal model is proposed. The comparison of the thermal-chemical characteristics of different nanomaterials reveals some unique 5 features related to nano-alloys such as increased reactivity. A preliminary combustion experiment on feeding nanoparticles in a methane stream is performed with a Bunsen burner setup, where the burning characteristics of different nanoparticles are analysed.

O objetivo do presente trabalho consistiu no desenvolvimento de fios de liga de cobre-cromo-zircônio (CuCrZr) em uma composição estabelecida em Cu-0,7%Cr- 0,1%Zr (em massa). Nas etapas desenvolvidas, foram feitos botões de cobrecromo (CuCr) e cobre-zircônio (CuZr) em um forno a arco elétrico de eletrodo não consumível, sendo esses botões, posteriormente, fundidos junto com cargas de cobre em um cadinho de alumina (Al2O3) inserido no interior de um vaso de aço inoxidável, que serviu como suporte. Após a fusão dos botões e cargas, o banho foi vazado em uma coquilha de cobre, obtendo-se os tarugos da liga de cobre. Dos tarugos em estado bruto de fusão, foram retiradas amostras para ensaios de dureza Vickers. Nesses tarugos foi feito um tratamento térmico de homogeneização a 910 °C por 2 h. Os tarugos foram posteriormente trabalhados mecanicamente a frio por forjamento rotativo seguido de trefilação, para obtenção final dos fios no calibre de 2,174 mm. Os fios passaram por dois tratamentos térmicos de recristalização, um a 510 °C por 1 h e outro de 480 °C por 5 h. Os fios foram caracterizados mecanicamente por ensaios de tração e de dureza e os resultados foram comparados com dados experimentais da literatura. / The objective of this work is the development of copper alloy wire-chromiumzirconium (CuCrZr) in a chemical composition Cu-0,7% Cr-0,1% Zr (weight). The main steps were, buttons were made of copper-chromium (CuCr) and copperzirconium (CuZr) in an electric arc furnace, these buttons were later melted with copper charge in a alumina crucible, placed inside a stainless steel can which served as a support. After melting buttons and charge, the bath was poured into a copper chill mold obtaining copper alloy billets. From the as cast cooper alloy billets, small samples were cut for Vickers hardness and then, a homogenizing heat treatment at 910 °C for 2 h was performed. The billets were then mechanically cold worked by swaging followed by drawing to obtain the wires with a diameter of 2,174 mm. The wires are mechanically characterized using tensile and hardness testing after recrystallization heat treatment at 510 °C for 1 h and at 480 °C for 5 h and the results were compared with experimental data from literature.

This diploma thesis deals with finding copper alloy suitable for processing SLM technology and determining the process parameters leading to a relative density close to the full material. The theoretical part provides an insight into additive technology and the processing of new alloys in SLM. Work also contains a search report of processed copper alloys used in SLM. Based on the theoretical part were designed test samples and method of evaluation. Samples were produced by melting metallurgical powder using ytterbium laser with an output power 400 W. The testing is divided into three stages; Determination of the parameters of the SLM process, Debug strategies for larger parts, Geometric precision and mechanical testing. Based on the results was determined dependence of relative density on the input parameters. For the best parameters were determined geometric precision correction and mechanical properties.

Industrial generator components experience high stresses and electrical fields during their service life. Material integrity is key in guaranteeing component performance. CuNi2SiZr, used as rotor wedges in generators, serve to maintain rotor slot content in place while experiencing high centrifugal stresses and low cycle fatigue during start and stop at elevated temperature. The quality and integrity of this material in service can be directly related to its microstructure, which is determined by the processing procedures of the wedges. In this study, the microstructure development in this material is evaluated to eliminate grain boundary defects by optimizing processing parameters, determining the best temperature/time combination for precipitation hardening, and determining cold work effect on aging parameters. Two chemistries containing Nickel-to-Silicon ratios of 3.2 and 3.8 were selected for analysis. Cast samples were hot extruded, cold worked, and precipitation hardened. Parameters were varied at each processing step. Five different levels of cold work (4, 5, 7, 10 and 13%) were evaluated using 5 different aging temperatures (450, 460, 470, 490 and 500°C). Each processing parameters' effect on microstructure and subsequently on hardness, conductivity, and tensile strength was recorded to assess material performance and identify grain boundary defects origination. Finding of this study identified observed grain boundary defects, using Transmission Electron Analysis, as voids/micro-tears. These defects on grain boundary are detrimental to low cycle fatigue, creep rupture and tensile strength properties and important aspects of the material performance. Grain boundary defects were observed at all levels of cold work, however, origination of defects was only observed in grain sizes larger than 50µm. The strengthening phases for the CuNi2Si+Zr alloy system were identified as Ni2Si and Cr3Si. The Nickel-to-Silicon ratio had an evident effect on the electrical conductivity of the material. However, aging benefits were not clearly established between the two Nickel-to-Silicon ratios.