Cocoyam [Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott] is widely cultivated as a staple food in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The crop, however, remains unpopular and not well known outside KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa where it is cultivated mainly for subsistence. The aims of the study were to collect local landraces (accessions) of the crop from where it is found growing within the country for various studies and also to document its nutritional values as well as the safety/toxicity of the crop. The study was carried out using various methods. These included a comparative assessment of the proximate, mineral and antinutrient compositions of cooked and uncooked tubers of a typical commercially available cocoyam and potato found in South African markets. These investigations were repeated for the tubers and leaves of available landraces (seven accessions) of C. esculenta found growing in the farmers’ fields in KwaZulu-Natal Province. Also, an in vivo toxicological study on cooked accessions of the local landraces was conducted to determine possible toxicity effects after consumption using albino rats as a model. The results revealed that commercially available cocoyam and potato tubers have very close nutritional components. Analysis of the proximate composition of seven accessions (UFCe1- UFCe7) of cooked and uncooked tubers of cocoyam indicated that UFCe7 was better in ash, crude protein, crude fibre and crude lipid contents but with higher moisture which could make it more vulnerable to microbial attack. No tubers of the seven accessions appeared to be ii outstandingly better than the others based on their mineral compositions. However, in terms of antinutritional factors, UFCe1, UFCe3 and UFCe7 had the least amounts of oxalate, tannins and phytate in their cooked states. It was discovered however, that the leaves of the accessions of this vegetable contain substantial amount of minerals, and therefore, can contribute significantly to the nutrient requirements of humans and could be recommended as a cheap source of nutrients in South Africa. None of the accessions was outstandingly better than the others in terms of their mineral contents and anti-nutritional factors. Moreover, the current study has shown that boiling the leaves of cocoyam prior to consumption is an effective way of reducing the antinutrient contents of the leaves of the plant thereby making it safe for consumption. The findings also revealed that cooking C. esculenta leaves may increase the levels of protein, fibre and lipid contents while cooking may also decrease the mineral, carbohydrate and caloric contents of the leaves of the accessions. The leafy vegetable may, therefore, be recommended as a cheap source of plant protein. Cooking improved the nutritive value as a result of the reduction in antinutrient levels, thereby improving the food quality in all the tuber and leaf samples used for this study. At the same time, cooked samples also suffered loss of some nutrients with respect to the proximate and mineral compositions. However, supplementation from other food sources that are rich in these nutrients is necessary when these crops are cooked for consumption. Any of the cocoyam accessions may be recommended for consumption for improved protein and mineral nutrients while tubers of accession UFCe7 have also shown good promise in terms of protein and fibre content availability. The results of the in vivo study, using the liver and kidney functional endpoints of weanling albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) maintained on different accessions of cooked cocoyam-based iii diets (UFCe1-UFCe7) for 28 days, revealed that all the accessions produced selective alterations on the hepatorenal indices of weanling rats. The highest alterations were produced by UFCe4 while the least was from UFCe2. These alterations may have consequential effects on the normal functioning of the liver and kidney of the animals. The UFCe2 exhibited the least toxicity risk among the accessions of C. esculenta growing in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa.

MSc. (Geography) / Growing concerns with regards to the environmental and economic impacts related to the application of herbicides to control the spread and abundance of weeds in agricultural crops have created a need for the development of novel agricultural management systems that are less dependent on herbicide usage and tillage. Such concerns have given rise to the need for the variable spatial treatment of croplands aimed at the minimization of requirements for the application of herbicides and the subsequent minimization of excess materials released into the surrounding environment. Remote sensing provides an opportunity for the fast and cost-effective delineation of weed patches in croplands over large areas where traditional scouting techniques would be impractical. The differences in spectral reflectance from different plants at certain wavelengths due to species specific variations in biochemical and physical characteristics is what lays the basis for the distinction of vegetation species within remotely sensed images and ultimately the potential detection of weed-species in croplands. This study investigates the potential spectral characterisation of maize and commonly occurring weed-species by (1) making use of reflectance spectra collected at leaf-level to identify statistically significant differences in reflectance between individual species throughout the visible (VIS), Near-Infrared (NIR) and Shortwave-Infrared (SWIR) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, determining the potential of the Red-Edge Position (REP) and slope for this particular application and testing the accuracy at which reflectance spectra may be classified according to vegetation species based on spectral reflectance at specific wavebands and REP as input predictor variables, (2) testing the potential effect of mixed spectral responses and soil-background interference through the analysis of reflectance spectra collected at canopy-level, and (3) determining the potential effect of the spectral generalisation associated with multispectral reflectance through the analysis of spectral responses resampled to the spectral band designations of representative high spatial resolution multispectral sensors. The results showed that maize may be spectrally distinguished from all of the weed-species included in the analysis based on leaf-level hyperspectral reflectance throughout the Visible-to-Near-Infrared (V-NIR) and SWIR-regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, however, the unique characterisation of weed-species is not possible for all species and where it is possible, it is highly wavelength-specific and would require high spectral resolution hyperspectral data. The wavelengths most suitable for the spectral characterisation of maize-crops and weed species in the study area were identified as: 432.1nm, 528.2nm, 700.7nm, 719.4nm, 1335.1nm, 1508.1nm, 2075.8nm, 2164.5nm and 2342.2nm. The output predictor model was able to classify reflectance spectra associated with maize crops and weeds in the study area at an overall accuracy of 89.7 per cent and it was shown that the inclusion of the REP as predictor variable did not improve the overall accuracy of the classification, however, may be used to improve the classification accuracies of certain species...

In dié studie is sekere aspekte van voedingswaarde van droogtebestandegewasse, tussen twee seisoene en op drie verskillende lokaliteite nl Hatfield, Mier en Lovedale, geondersoek. Die spesies wat met mekaar vergelyk is, was: C. sturtii, A. nummularia, A. halimus A. canescens(Santa Rita), A. canescens (Veldreservaat 1), en A. canescens(Rincon). Die twee seisoene was herfs en winter. Uit dié resultate kan die volgende afleiding gemaak word:betekenisvolle(P < 0.05) laer blaar-totstamverhouding gedurende die winter as die herfs kon by die onderskeie proefpersele van, C. sturtii en A. canescens (Veld 1)(Hatfield); A. canescens(Veld 1) en A. canescens(Rincon)(Mier); A. canescens(Veld 1) en A. canescens(Santa Rita)(Lovedale), waargeneem word. In teenstelling met die bogenoemde bevindinge het A. nummularia(Lovedale) betekenisvol (P < 0.05) hoër blaar-totstamverhouding in die winter as die herfs gehad. Vir A. canescens (Santa Rita) het die Mier proefperseel betekenisvolle (P < 0.05) hoër blaar-tot-stamverhouding as die ander twee lokaliteite getoon. By al drie proefpersele, vir alle spesies, is die blaar RP % sowel as die IVDMV % van die blare betekenisvol (P < 0.05) hoër as dié van stamme. Vir al die spesies geoes by Mier, was die NBV % in die winter betekenisvol (P < 0.05) hoër as in die herfs. C. sturtii (Lovedale) het geen betekenisvolle (P > 0.05) verskille in die chemiese samestelling tussen seisoene getoon nie, terwyl die ander spesies wel betekenisvolle (P < 0.05) verskille getoon het. Slegs in die geval van A. nummularia kon betekenisvolle (P < 0.05) verskille in IVDMV % tussen lokaliteite waargeneem word. Indien die tempo van degradasie (c) gedurende die herfs by Hatfield geoes, tussen spesies vergelyk word, het A. canescens (Veld 1)betekenisvolle (P < 0.05) hoër c-waarde as dié vanaf A. nummularia en A.canescens (Santa Rita) gehad. Slegs monsters op Hatfield gedurende die herfs geoes kon betekenisvolle (P < 0.05) verskille in PD tussen A. canescens (Veld1) en A. nummularia waargeneem word. Slegs by Mier, in die herfs, het A. nummularia betekenisvol(P < 0.05) hoër ED as A. canescens (Veld 1) gehad. Vir wintermonsters kon geen betekenisvolle (P > 0.05) verskille in die c-waarde tussen spesies en lokaliteite waargeneem word nie. Wintermonsters, geneem te Mier, het A. canescens (Veld 1) betekenisvol (P < 0.05) laer PD as die ander spesies gehad, terwyl by Lovedale het A. canescens(Santa Rita) betekenisvol (P < 0.05) laer PD as die ander spesies gehad. A. nummularia het betekenisvol (P < 0.05) hoër ED as die ander spesies, by Mier en Lovedale, vir monsters wat gedurende winter geoes is, gehad. Wanneer gasproduksiewaardes tussen spesies vergelyk word, het A. canescens (Veld 1) betekenisvol (P < 0.05) minder gas as die ander spesies, vir inkubasie tye 20,30 en 44 ure, geproduseer. Betekenisvolle (P < 0.05) verskille in die a-waarde kon tussen die hoë C. sturtii en die lae A. canescens. (Santa Rita), maar nie tussen die ander spesies, waargeneem word. Betekenisvollen (P < 0.05) verskille in die b-waarde kon tussen: C. sturtii (145.1 ml/g DM), A. canescens (Veld 1)(127.9 ml/g DM)en A. canescens (Rincon)(164.9 ml/g DM) waargeneem word. Betekenisvolle verskille (P < 0.05) in die tempo van gasproduksie kon net tussen die hoë C. sturtii (0.086/h) en die lae A. canescens (Santa Rita)(0.065/h) waargeneem word. Betekenisvolle (P < 0.05) verskille in die potensiële gasproduksie (a + b) kon tussen: C. sturtii, A. canescens. (Veld 1) en A. canescens (Rincon) waargeneem word. Droogtebestande gewasse kan as medium tot lae kwaliteit voerbronne beskou word,wat op strategiese tye(droogte tye) benut kan word. ENGLISH : The nutritive value of four drought tolerant crops were investigated at three localities during two seasons. The species which have been compared, were C. sturtii, A. nummularia, A. halimus, A. canescens (Santa Rita), A. canescens (Field reserve 1), and (Rincon). The two seasons were autumn and winter. A significantly (P < 0.05) lower leaf-to-stem ratio was recorded for the species <i<C. sturtii and A. canescens (Field 1) at Hatfield, while at Mier A. canescens (Field 1) and A. canescens (Rincon) were found to have significant (P < 0.05)lower values in the winter than in the autumn. At Lovedale, the winter leaf-to-stem ratios were significantly (P < 0.05) lower than in the autumn for A. canescens (Field 1) and A. canescens (Santa Rita). In contrast to the above, A. nummularia had a significantly (P < 0.05) higher leaf-to-stem ratio in winter than in autumn at Lovedale. Overall, A. canescens (Santa Rita) harvested at Mier had a significantly (P < 0.05) higher leaf-to-stem ratio than material from the other two sites. At all the sampling sites and for all accessions the CP % and the IVDMD % of the leaves were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those of the stems. The NDF % in most of the species harvested during winter, was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those harvested during autumn. C. sturtii was the only species for which no significant (P > 0.05) differences in the chemical composition could be found between the two seasons. Only in the case of A. nummularia could significant (P < 0.05) differences in the IVDMD % be found between localities. A. canescens (Field 1) harvested during autumn at Hatfield, had a significantly higher rate of passage(c) than A. nummularia and A. canescens (Santa Rita). Samples harvested at Hatfield in autumn also produced significant (P < 0.05) differences in PD between A. canescens (Field 1) and A .nummularia. Mier was the only sampling site where significantly (P < 0.05) higher (A. nummualaria) and lower (A. canescens(Field1)) ED were observed for samples taken during autumn. No significant (P > 0.05) differences in the rate of passage (c) were observed between species or sampling sites for samples taken during the winter. Winter samples taken from A. canescens (Field 1) at Mier and A. canescens (Santa Rita) taken from Lovedale, showed significantly (P < 0.05) lower PD than the other species. A. nummularia had significantly (P < 0.05) higher ED than the other species harvested at Mier and Lovedale, during winter. When gas production values between species were compared it was clear that A. canescens (Field1) produced significantly (P < 0.05) less gas compared to the other species at incubation times of 20, 30 and 44 hours. Significant (P < 0.05) differences in the a-values were also observed between the high C. sturtii and the low A. canescens (Santa Rita) values. Significant (P < 0.05) differences in the b-value were observed between C. sturtii (145.1ml/g DM), A. canescens (Field 1)(127.9 ml/g DM) and A. canescens (Rincon)(164ml/g DM). C. sturtii (0.086/h) and A. canescens (Santa Rita)(0.065/h) were the only species that differed significantly (P < 0.05) in terms of the rate of passage(c). Significant (P < 0.05) differences in the potential gas production (a + b) were observed between C.sturtii, A. canescens (Field 1) and A. canescens (Rincon). Drought resistant crops can be considered as a medium to low quality source of fodder which can be used at strategic times, especially during periods of drought. Copyright / Dissertation (MScAgric)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted

Thesis ((MSc. Agriculture (Agronomy)) -- University of Limpopo, 2015 / An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of vermicompost on cabbage growth and yield. Vermicompost (VC) was applied at 2500 kg/ha and was compared to one organic {vita grow (VG) [N:P:K 2:3:2 (16)] and one chemical fertiliser (CF) (N:P:K 2:3:2(22)]} which were both applied at 1500 kg/ha. The other treatments were prepared as mixtures of the three fertilisers (i.e. vermicompost and vita grow; vita grow and chemical fertiliser as well as vermicompost and chemical fertiliser) at 50% recommended rate, with no fertiliser treatment as a control. The trial was laid out in a randomised complete block design with three replicates. Chemical fertiliser achieved the highest chlorophyll content (80.6 nmol/mg) which was significantly higher than the other treatments. Vermicompost and the control had the least chlorophyll content at 58.6 and 55.8 nmol/mg, respectively. VC+VG, CF and CF+VC achieved the highest numbers of marketable heads while the control had the least. VC+VG, CF and CF+VC had more than 60% of the plants producing marketable heads whilst VC and VG had less than 40% of the plants producing marketable heads. The control only had 19.93% of the plants producing marketable heads. Range of marketable heads ranged from 2.82 t/ha for the control to 12.7 t/ha for CF. VC+VG, CF and CF+VC achieved marketable yields above 10.0 t/ha.VC and VG achieved 5.45 and 8.28 t/ha. The results thus show that use of chemical fertiliser or the combinations of VC and VG and that of CF and VC are the ones that can be recommended for cabbage production. Key words: vermicompost, growth, yield, cabbage, fertiliser

<p>Cover cropping is an effective management practice for reducing nitrogen (N) losses to the environment from agriculture fields in the Midwest. Cereal rye (CR; <i>Secale cereale L</i>.) and hairy vetch (HV; <i>Vicia villosa Roth</i>) are two of the most common cover crop species grown in the region. However, limited cover crop adoption in the region is partly due to a dearth of knowledge addressing the effect of cover crops on nitrogen cycling and grain production within corn and soybean conservation cropping systems. The following studies were designed to address knowledge gaps in the current literature regarding the rate, quantity, and timing of cover crop residue C and N release; the fate of CR N following termination; and the effects of cover crops specifically on soybean growth, N assimilation, and yield. Data from this study revealed that growers should be aware that cover crop nutrient release may result in a “tug-of-war” between the soil microbiome and cash crops for soil inorganic-N. Additionally, we observed that CR N is used minimally by the subsequent crop; thus, growers should value CR N as a long-term benefit, such as building SOM. Finally, we found that added pressure from CR during early soybean growth may reduce soybean resilience, and in a wet year result in yield loss.</p>

Greenhouse and microplot studies were conducted for understanding the effects of cover crop species/cultivars for hosts and population reduction of soybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines) from the fields of North Dakota. Moreover, early-maturing soybean [Glycine max (L.)] accessions from different countries of origin were screened for resistance against two common SCN populations for finding new sources of resistance. Thirty-eight cover crop species/cultivars were evaluated for their hosting ability of two SCN populations (SCN103 and SCN2W) from two fields of North Dakota in greenhouse experiments. The majority of the tested crops were non-hosts for both SCN populations. However, a few of them, such as Austrian winter pea (Pisum sativum L.), crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L. cv. Dixie), crambe (Crambe abyssinica, cv. BelAnn), field pea, cvs. Aragorn and Cooper, hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth), turnip (Brassica rapa L. cv. Purple top), and white lupine (Lupinus albus L.) were poor-hosts/hosts of both SCN populations. Furthermore, thirteen of them were tested for the SCN population reduction either or both in the greenhouse and microplot experiments. Out of 13, at least four crops, such as annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum L.), brown mustard (Brassica juncea L. cv. Kodiak), daikon radish (Raphanus sativus L.), and turnip cv. Pointer showed more than 50% population reduction compared with initial population densitiy, consistently in the greenhouse or microplot experiments. The resistance screening of 152 early-maturing soybean accessions showed that a majority of the accessions were susceptible/moderately susceptible to both SCN populations (SCN HG type 0 and 2.5.7), while a few (n=18) showed good resistance responses to both or either of the SCN populations. The cover crops, which were non-hosts/poor-hosts and have a greater ability for the SCN population reduction have great potential to be included in an integrated SCN management strategy. The novel resistant accessions identified in this study have the potential to be used in soybean breeding for developing SCN-resistant cultivars after confirming their resistance response and identifying the resistance genes/loci. The results obtained from this study helps in developing a sustainable SCN management strategy in the northern Great Plains.

The thesis deals compare prices mixed permanent crops that are established for the property transfer tax or gift tax from prices established for other purposes. For the determination of the prices is used method of simplified and in a yield or cost method.

The use of coated seed to establish crops is not a novel practice. Seed coatings have been used on small seeded crops to improve the handling ability by making the seed unit larger and heavier. Producers can therefore calibrate their sowing equipment more efficiently and wind will not cause as much drift at sowing. Seed coating can have an added benefit for leguminous crops if the symbiotic inoculant (Rhizobium) is added to the coating. This saves the producer time and allows peace of mind that inoculation was done by trained professionals. Other than the inoculation, there are some other constituents in the seed coating that can have benefits to the plant. It can, however, be theorized that added nutrients or pesticides will be beneficial to the plants only if these nutrients are deficient in the growth medium or when pests are present. This study evaluated the effect of seed coating on the life stages of germination, emergence and survival, seedling growth and ultimate yield of mature lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) plants, comparing the results with non-coated seed. Two cultivars were used in the evaluation, SA Standard and SuperCuf, to determine if the effects would be similar, or would genetic differences between the cultivar play a significant role. These life stages (germination, emergence and seedling growth) were chosen due to the importance of these stages to the success of establishment. Fast and uniform germination will result in a uniform stand with strong competition against weed infestation. The effect of growth medium on the emergence of seedlings and the interaction between the seed coating and the growth medium was important to determine to identify limitations in the use of seed coating. Changes in the growth of seedlings in terms of some physio-morphological characteristics will assist in identifying parameters influenced by the coating. It was, however, essential to not only do these trials under ideal agricultural conditions, but to identify if similar results would be obtained from stressed conditions, such as salinity, which is a growing concern for crop production areas. The question of whether seed coating will influence the ultimate production of the crop could then be answered. It was found that the method in which germination is tested can have a significant outcome for the results obtained. When the Jacobsen apparatus was compared with the use of petri dishes, using specification according to ISTA, it was found that the water movement in the Jacobsen apparatus overcomes concentrated nutrient conditions, especially for SuperCuf. Under saline conditions the coated SA Standard seed had higher germination than the non-coated seed, therefore overcoming inhibitions imposed by the salinity. It is clear that the coating influences germination of lucerne and the interaction with the seed environment is significant. It is also clear that the genetic differences between cultivars are significant and results should not be applied across all lucerne cultivars. When the emergence percentage had been determined in different growth media, namely a commercial growth media, a sandy loam soil and silica medium, it was found that the emergence was influenced by the media. Even though the emergence of seedlings are mostly determined by the nutrients in the cotyledons, some growing conditions did cause lower emergence for non-coated SA Standard seeds and was overcome by the use of coated seed. When the growing conditions were manipulated with saline irrigation it was found that coated SuperCuf had a higher emergence % than the non-coated treatments when irrigated with the 750 μS.cm-1 water. From the data collected from this trial, it can be concluded that, even though the use of seed coating does not always influence the emergence of lucerne seedlings, seed coating does have an influence on the emergence, but it is dependent on the growth medium quality in terms of nutrient composition and salinity. Similar to the germination trial, the genetic influence of the different cultivars was noticeable. To determine the differences caused by seed coating to the physio-morphological characteristics (stem height, leaf area etc.) of lucerne, a pot trial was conducted using different irrigation treatments, municipal water (180 μS.cm-1), 500 and 750 μS.cm-1 water, created with NaCl. It was found that the physio-morphological characteristics were highly correlated, i.e. the stem height, leaf area, number of leaves and dry matter production changed in relation to each other. There were, however, differences in this correlation coated and non-coated seed treatments, when irrigated with 500 μS.cm-1 water. For the seedlings grown from coated seed, the correlation between shoot dry matter yield and the other parameters were low, while the seedlings growth from non-coated seed, leaf area was not correlated with the other parameters. It was concluded that the tolerance mechanism for salinity for plants irrigated with 500 μS.cm-1 water, caused more differences than the other water treatments. Taking into consideration that coating influences the germination and emergence of lucerne and that the two cultivars react differently to the seed coating, the yields obtained from field trials could then be interpreted if differences were observed. Three field trials were established, namely a trial established in autumn (established in 2009) and second trial established in spring (established in 2010) which were sown at 25 kg.ha-1, while a third trial established spring (established in 2010) was sown at 5 different sowing densities, namely 80%, 90%, 100%, 110% and 120% of recommended sowing density (25 kg.ha-1). It was found that the pasture stands established with SA Standard, did not show many differences between the coated and non-coated seed treatments and were mostly restricted to the second growing season, where the non-coated seed treatments had significantly higher dry matter yield than the coated seed treatments. Stands established with SuperCuf, displayed more variation between the seed treatments and the non-coated seed treatments had higher yields in the first season. It was, however, found that the stands established with coated SuperCuf seed had lower stem: leaf ratio’s, indicating that a better quality fodder can be produced from coated seed. The data from the sowing density trial showed very little difference between the yields of the stands established with coated and non-coated SA Standard seed. Differences were, however, observed between seed treatments at 90% and 120% of the recommended sowing density, where the stands established with non-coated seed had higher yields than the stands established with coated seed. It can be concluded that under these trial conditions, the use of coated seed had very little influence on the yield of the lucerne stands. The observed differences suggest that the lucerne growth under these few conditions, the stands established from non-coated seed had better yield, but the stands established from coated seed had better quality. It is, however, more likely that there will be no differences between the seed treatments. Data from the sowing density trial also led to the conclusion that stands established at 20% less seed will not result in lower yields if the stand establishment is successful. The similarity between the seed treatments and the sowing densities suggests that the number of plants per area were the same, caused by seedling mortality during the high growth rate in the early growing stage, or the morphological characteristics, such as number of stems per plant and number of leaves per stem, adapted to result in similar yields and quality. / Dissertation (MSc Agric)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

The Plant Breeder’s Right (PBR), also known as Plant Variety Protection (PVP), is a form of intellectual property afforded to breeders of newly bred plant varieties. In South Africa, intellectual protection of new plant varieties is afforded through the Plant Breeders’ Rights Act, 1976 (Act No. 15 of 1976) as amended in 1996. / The writer has been Registrar: Plant Breeders’ Rights since November 2007. Over the years the writer has interacted with several stakeholders with interest in plant breeders’ rights, including breeders, farmers, patent attorneys, growers, plant breeders’ rights administrators from other countries and civil society organisations. Although South Africa has had Plant Breeders’ Rights legislation since 1976, it has been observed that this piece of legislation is relatively unknown and often misunderstood even by the users of the system. In engagements with various stakeholders, it has been established that there are conflicting views amongst the stakeholders on pertinent issues related to the plant breeders’ rights system. There are views, among others, include: that the plant breeders’ rights system is only relevant and benefits breeders from big multinational companies such as Monsanto and farmers can never benefit in such a system; that the Plant Breeders’ Rights Act is synonymous with genetically modified organisms; that indigenous plants are neglected, and that the system only promotes protection of foreign varieties. The most contentious issue is however around the impact of plant breeders’ rights on the tradition of farmers to save, sell and exchange seed. / Very little is documented on the South Africa plant breeders’ rights system, more so from the administrator’s perspective. This study explored some aspects of the plant breeders’ rights system that may need policy interventions and legislation amendments, such as matters around the plant breeders’ rights system in relation to farmers’ rights, possible dual protection of Genetically Modified varieties in terms of the Plant Breeders’ Rights Act 1976 and the Patents Act 1978, as well as the participation of indigenous ornamental crops in the plant breeders’ rights system. / On the issue of the farmers’ rights: results of this work show that the current provision in the Plant Breeders’ Rights Act deals with Farmers’ Rights in a narrow sense, i.e. with the rights of farmers to save seed. It was established that this provision is inadequate for both the breeders and the farmers. A survey was also conducted among smallholder farmers from four provinces, namely Eastern Cape, Free State, Limpopo, and Western Cape. The interesting finding was that although there is so much debate around the impact of the plant breeders’ rights system on farmers’ rights, the majority of the farmers from this study group have never heard of the Plant Breeders’ Rights Act. There are farmers who are continuing with the practice of seed saving; however some farmers have indicated that they do not save seed they believe that this practice lowers yield. Those who do save seed mostly save their traditional seed, i.e. locally adapted seed lacking formal crop improvement as opposed to modern commercial seed. Some farmers have indicated that they do develop varieties through their own selections and believe that their varieties could qualify for protection in terms of the Plant Breeders’ Rights Act. It is evident that both government and the civil society organisations need to do more to educate smallholder farmers about laws and policies that impact their livelihood. Based on this study, a proposal was made to have the farmers’ privilege provisions in the current Plant Breeders’ Right Act amended to allow the Minister responsible for Agriculture to prescribe among others: the crops in which this provision will apply; the category or categories of farmers that would benefit; the circumstances under which royalties should be paid. This proposal was welcomed by most stakeholders and has since been incorporated in the draft Plant Breeders’ Rights Bill. It is envisaged that specific details around these factors will be included in the Regulations to the Act after extensive consultations with all relevant stakeholders. / There is a gap in policy and legislation with regard to the recognition of Farmers’ Rights as envisaged in the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). As such there are calls from some stakeholders including the civil society organisations that legislation on plant breeders’ rights must address these gaps and/or an alternative sui generis (of its own kind) system should be explored as the International Union for the Protection of New Plant Varieties (UPOV) system is not tailored for developing © University of Pretoria vii countries. In South Africa, legislation dealing with some aspects pertaining to Farmers’ Rights is spread over different government departments, e.g. Department of Agriculture, Forestry & Fisheries dealing with intellectual property protection only in as far as plant breeders’ rights; Department of Trade & Industry being custodians of intellectual property laws in South Africa and administrators of, among others the Patents Act; Department of Environmental Affairs dealing with Access and Benefit Sharing matters; Department of Science and Technology dealing with Indigenous Knowledge Systems and intellectual property protection emanating from publicly funded research institutions. More discussions are needed on South Africa becoming a member of the ITPGRFA as these will pave the way for further discussions and policy interventions addressing Farmers’ Rights in a broad sense. / As far as the Genetically Modified Organisms are concerned, South Africa has approved only three Genetically Modified (GM) crops for commercialization in terms of the GMO Act, 1997, namely cotton, maize, and soybean. This is contrary to some statements made by members of the public that much more crops, including pumpkin, potato, banana and tomato are genetically modified. In terms of intellectual property protection, of the total number of GM varieties protected by plant breeders’ rights per crop: 60% of varieties are GM for cotton, 61% for yellow maize, 34% for white maize and 63% for soybean. Currently there are no GM events used in these crops protected in terms of the Patents Act 1978, which effectively means that there is currently no dual protection for these crops. Dual protection is however one of the most hotly debated issues because of the impact it might have on the rights of farmers to save seed. It has been argued that in South Africa dual protection is possible. Scrutiny of the Plant Breeders’ Rights Act 1976, the Patents Act 1978 and the draft National Policy on Intellectual Property shows that all are silent on the issue of dual protection of plant varieties. The Departments of Agriculture, Forestry & Fisheries together with the Department of Trade and Industry need to initiate discussions around dual protection as well the use of Technology Agreements, between technology holders and technology users, in protecting GM varieties and the impact thereof for all role players in the value-chain in order to come up with the country position in this regard. / This study showed that ornamental plants attract the highest number of plant breeders’ rights applications. Of the applications received between 2000 and 2010 about 20% are of varieties developed from indigenous plants. Of plant breeders’ rights in ornamental plants, 84% are owned by foreign entities. Of the 16% owned by local entities, 12% are privately owned and 4% are owned by public research institutions. Some of the challenges facing this industry include the fact that there is inadequate turnover to allow for breeding programs and research initiatives; this is exacerbated by plant breeder’s rights infringements which lead to further revenue losses. Other challenges the industry face include high labor costs and lack of market information. The national Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries together with the other relevant departments, e.g. the Department of Labour and the Department of Trade and Industry need to engage more with the floricultural industry stakeholders to discuss the challenges facing the industry and come up with policies that would be conducive for the further development of the industry in order for South Africa to benefit from its unique biodiversity. Literature study has also established that breeders are keen on developing varieties of medicinal plants that are uniform and stable. This would call for domestic legislation on intellectual property protection that is aligned with legislation on Biodiversity and Access and Benefit-Sharing. / This study highlights the importance of engaging stakeholders from both the formal and informal sector and brings attention to gaps in our policies and legislation. This study has already made a major contribution in the draft Plant Breeders’ Rights Bill through the inclusion of the revised provision on farmers’ privilege. This revision is aimed at ensuring that the legitimate interests of the breeder are protected whilst the rights of the farmers are recognized. It is hoped that this study will make a positive contribution to future policy developments and will lay a foundation for future studies pertaining to the plant breeders’ rights system and its impact in the agricultural sector. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Department of Agriculture, Forestry & Fisheries / Paraclinical Sciences / PhD / Unrestricted

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