Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are important components of semi-arid and arid environments and occupy a large area in Polar Regions. However, their ecological functions and the diversity of major organisms are still ambiguous. Given that rapid climate change is of particular significance and the current warming is already attributed to small variations on the Earth, it is important to obtain a more comprehensive picture about the environment to predict its changes. Moreover, climate change is faster and more severe in Polar Regions than in other parts of the world. In this context, the thesis is focused on the community structure of microbial phototrophs and their ecological functions in BSCs of the Arctic (Central Svalbard) and Antarctica (Dronning Maud Land). Combining molecular and morphological techniques we described cyanobacterial community composition in BSCs and its changes along the gradient of soil crust development. Moreover, we showed how the different stages of soil crust development (from poorly-developed to well-developed) influence photosynthetic and nitrogenase activities associated with the phototrophic community.

Proposed thesis is focused on the role of soil microbial crusts in the extreme environmental conditions of high-elevation cold desert of W Himalaya. Despite the importance of microbial soil crusts in arid soils, the biodiversity of their microbial communities, their role and function are still unclear. Our knowledge about functioning of these outlying ecosystems in this part of the world is still very insufficient in general. The area of Ladakh is perfect place for studying the microbial soil crust arid climate and extreme elevation aroud 6000 m a.s.l. represents unique condition for well-developed soil crusts communities. The whole region is unaffected by human activities or plant invasions, so we can study soil crusts in pristine natural condition. Our investigations is focused on soil microbial community of BSCc in Ladakh region. It combines range of aspects connected with BSCs such as taxonomical composition, changes of diversity and activity in relation to environmental condition. The thesis is the first compilation of studies concerned on microbial communities in area of Ladakh and one of the first work investigating the ecophysiology of BCSs in cold desert.

In water depths of 500m to greater than 2,000m, off the West coast of Africa, sediments comprise very soft clays with extremely high water contents and plasticity. In situ CPT and T-bar testing in these areas have identified 'crusts' with undrained shear strengths of up to15kPa at 0.5m depth, before the strength reduces by an order of magnitude to normallyconsolidated strengths by 2m depth. This thesis presents an investigation into the behaviour and origin of these crusts. Mini ball-penetrometer tests on natural cores confirm the crustal strength, and indicate a sensitivity of 3 within the crust. However, pipeline interface tests using the Cam-shear device demonstrate a significant variability in the measured interface friction coefficient. Particularlylow strengths are observed when shearing in an undrained manner on a rough interface. These results are attributed to the heterogeneity of natural samples, and demonstrate the need to better understand the origin of the crust material in relation to interface micro-mechanics. A microbiological investigation of crust material by extracting bacteria DNA from claysamples is described, and identifies the presence of the bacterium, Marinobacter aquaeolei. This bacterium is then used to inoculate sterile samples to determine its ability to produce crustal strength. Through this work, it is concluded that M. aquaeolei is unable to create crustal strength, although extracelluar polysaccharides produced by this bacterium will influence thepermeability of sediments through the clogging of voids. It is therefore also concluded that future geotechnical investigation into marine sediments should consider the presence of bacteriaand their ability to influence the soil properties. Wet sieving of crust material shows that the crust comprises a mixture of burrowing invertebrate faecal pellets and clay. Pellets are found to represent 20% to over 55% of the crust material by dry mass. Individual pellets are shown to exhibit unconfined compressive strengths of between 5kPa and 50kPa, thus demonstrating their strength and robustness. Consolidationbehaviour is governed by the percentage of pellets in natural samples. Based ontheir location, abundance and strength, it is concluded that the origin of crustal strength lies with the presence of burrowing invertebrate faecal pellets. When sheared on rough pipeline interfaces, however, pellets are observed to crush, expelling void-filling fragments that may generatepositive excess pore pressures. Smeared clay produced when shearing natural samplesobstructs the dissipation of pore pressures, which may encourage hydroplaning, and explainthe observation of very low interface friction coefficients. It is therefore suggested that smooth pipelines offer more sliding resistance by minimising the risk of pellet crushing. This thesis proposes that wet sieving of core samples should be undertaken during the site investigationsfor future deep-water, hot-oil pipeline installations to provide design information on both the consolidation and strength behaviour of natural sediments.

abstract: Desert organisms lead harsh lives owing to the extreme, often unpredictable environmental conditions they endure. Climate change will likely make their existence even harsher. Predicting the ecological consequences of future climate scenarios thus requires understanding how the biota will be affected by climatic shifts. Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are an important ecosystem component in arid lands, one that covers large portions of the landscape, improving soil stability and fertility. Because cyanobacteria are biocrust’s preeminent primary producers, eking out an existence during short pulses of precipitation, they represent a relevant global change object of study. I assessed how climate scenarios predicted for the Southwestern United States (US) will affect biocrusts using long-term, rainfall-modifying experimental set-ups that imposed either more intense drought, a seasonally delayed monsoon season, or a shift to smaller but more frequent precipitation events. I expected drought to be detrimental, but not a delay in the monsoon season. Surprisingly, both treatments showed similar effects on cyanobacterial community composition and population size after four years. While successionally incipient biocrusts were unaffected, mature biocrusts lost biomass and diversity with treatment, especially among nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. In separate experiments, I assessed the effect of rainfall with modified event size and frequency after a decade of treatment. Small, frequent rainfall events surprisingly enhanced the diversity and biomass of bacteria and cyanobacteria, with clear winners and losers: nitrogen-fixing Scytonema sp. benefited, while Microcoleus vaginatus lost its dominance. As an additional finding, I could also show that water addition is not always beneficial to biocrusts, calling into question the notion that these are strictly water-limited systems. Finally, results interpretation was severely hampered by a lack of appropriate systematic treatment for an important group of biocrust cyanobacteria, the “Microcoleus steenstrupii complex”. I characterized the complex using a polyphasic approach, leading to the formal description of a new family (Porphyrosiphonaceae) of desiccation resistant cyanobacteria that includes 11 genera, of which 5 had to be newly described. Under the new framework, the distribution and abundance of biocrust cyanobacteria with respect to environmental conditions can now be understood. This body of work contributes significantly to explain current distributional patterns of biocrust cyanobacteria and to predict their fate in the face of climate change. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Microbiology 2020

O presente estudo propõe-se em investigar os componentes das crostas biológicas de solo (CBS) visando compreender o comportamento e as inter-relações das CBS em areais do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), no extremo meridional do Brasil. Pode ser entendido como uma análise exploratória de CBS existentes em nos areais do bioma Pampa, no sudoeste do RS, através de levantamento florístico e de características do solo. A pesquisa visa contribuir para estudos sobre o papel desse componente biótico na pedogênese e estabilidade da superfície de solos em áreas com processos de arenização. As amostras foram coletadas em maio de 2014 e 2015 em três locais, sendo duas por sítio, nos municípios de Alegrete e São Francisco de Assis. O sítio analisado em Alegrete se constitui de um areal recoberto por plantio de eucalipto, já os sítios em São Francisco de Assis se caracterizam por areais que sofrem processos de ravinamento, um sem interferência humana e o outro com ravina estabilizada artificialmente. As costas biológicas foram coletadas com placa de Petri invertida para garantir uma profundidade máxima de 2 cm e o mesmo volume para todas as amostras. A subsuperfície do solo também foi amostrada para análises texturais e químicas. A análise do material biológico foi realizada em estereoscópio e microscópio óptico (400-1.000x) onde verificou-se que a composição florística é constituída por 13 táxons de cianobactérias destacando-se espécies filamentosas, 2 táxons de líquens e um táxon de briófitas. Os resultados mostram que a sequência de sucessão se mostrou desde estágios primários – com manchas de cianobactérias – a táxons mais evoluídos com musgos de grande espessura. Foram observadas diferentes morfologias para as CBS, seguindo os padrões taxonômicos suave, rugoso, pinacular e ondulado. As amostras de solo sub-superficiais, confirmaram a textura arenosa e baixa fertilidade dos Neossolos Quartzarênicos Órticos nos sítios de estudo. Uma conclusão geral a partir dos estudos prévios, dos materiais analisados e das observações em campo corrobora afirmações de pesquisas que alertam para a elevada suscetibilidade dos solos destes locais do Rio Grande do Sul a processos erosivos hídricos e eólicos. / This study aims to investigate the biological soil crusts (BSC) components in order to understand the behaviour and the interrelations of BSC in some areais (sand deposits with no vegetation cover) of Rio Grande do Sul (RS), the southernmost Brazilian State. It can be understood as an exploratory analysis of existing BSC in Pampa geographic sites in southwestern RS through floristic survey and soil characteristics. The research aims to contribute to studies on the role of the biotic component in pedogenesis and stability of the soil surface in sites under sandification processes. The samples were collected in May 2014 and 2015 in three locations, two per site, in Alegrete and São Francisco de Assis. The analysed site in Alegrete constitutes a sandy terrain covered with eucalyptus plantation (29°42'35.48''S and 55°25'13.47"W), while the sites in São Francisco de Assis are characterized by sands that suffer processes of ravine, one without human intervention (29°30'54.98"S and 55°07'23.07"W) and the other with artificially stabilised ravine (29°23'58.85"S and 55°13'37.60"W). The biological crusts were collected with inverted Petri dish to ensure a maximum depth of 2 cm and the same volume for all samples. The soil subsurface was also sampled for textural and chemical analysis. The analysis of biological material was carried out in the stereoscope and optical microscope (400-1000x) where it was found that the floristic composition consists of 13 taxa of cyanobacteria highlighting filamentous species, 2 taxa of lichens and 1 taxon of bryophytes. The sequence of succession showed from early stages - with spots of cyanobacteria – to most advanced taxa with thick mosses. Different morphologies were observed for BSC, following the taxonomic patterns smooth, rough, pinacular and wavy. The subsurface soil samples confirmed the sandy texture and low fertility of the Psamments in the study sites. general conclusion from previous studies of the analysed materials and field observations corroborates research statements that warn of the high susceptibility of soils from these sites in Rio Grande do Sul to water and wind erosion, so this study recommends adoption of maximum care of soil conservation for whatever the intended use of the studied areas.

abstract: Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are critical components of arid and semiarid environments and provide the primary sources of bioavailable macronutrients and increase micronutrient availability to their surrounding ecosystems. BSCs are composed of a variety of microorganisms that perform a wide range of physiological processes requiring a multitude of bioessential micronutrients, such as iron, copper, and molybdenum. This work investigated the effects of BSC activity on soil solution concentrations of bioessential elements and examined the microbial production of organic chelators, called siderophores. I found that aluminum, vanadium, copper, zinc, and molybdenum were solubilized in the action of crusts, while nickel, zinc, arsenic, and zirconium were immobilized by crust activity. Potassium and manganese displayed behavior consistent with biological removal and mobilization, whereas phosphorus and iron solubility were dominated by abiotic processes. The addition of bioavailable nitrogen altered the effects of BSCs on soil element mobilization. In addition, I found that the biogeochemical activites of BSCs were limited by molybdenum, a fact that likely contributes to co-limitation by nitrogen. I confirmed the presence of siderophore producing microbes in BSCs. Siderophores are low-molecular weight organic compounds that are released by bacteria to increase element solubility and facilitate element uptake; siderophore production is likely the mechanism by which BSCs affect the patterns I observed in soil solution element concentrations. Siderophore producers were distributed across a range of bacterial groups and ecological niches within crusts, suggesting that siderophore production influences the availability of a variety of elements for use in many physiological processes. Four putative siderophore compounds were identified using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry; further attempts to characterize the compounds confirmed two true siderophores. Taken together, the results of my work provide information about micronutrient cycling within crusts that can be applied to BSC conservation and management. Fertilization with certain elements, particularly molybdenum, may prove to be a useful technique to promote BSC growth and development which would help prevent arid land degradation. Furthermore, understanding the effects of BSCs on soil element mobility could be used to develop useful biomarkers for the study of the existence and distribution of crust-like communities on ancient Earth, and perhaps other places, like Mars. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Geological Sciences 2012

O presente estudo propõe-se em investigar os componentes das crostas biológicas de solo (CBS) visando compreender o comportamento e as inter-relações das CBS em areais do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), no extremo meridional do Brasil. Pode ser entendido como uma análise exploratória de CBS existentes em nos areais do bioma Pampa, no sudoeste do RS, através de levantamento florístico e de características do solo. A pesquisa visa contribuir para estudos sobre o papel desse componente biótico na pedogênese e estabilidade da superfície de solos em áreas com processos de arenização. As amostras foram coletadas em maio de 2014 e 2015 em três locais, sendo duas por sítio, nos municípios de Alegrete e São Francisco de Assis. O sítio analisado em Alegrete se constitui de um areal recoberto por plantio de eucalipto, já os sítios em São Francisco de Assis se caracterizam por areais que sofrem processos de ravinamento, um sem interferência humana e o outro com ravina estabilizada artificialmente. As costas biológicas foram coletadas com placa de Petri invertida para garantir uma profundidade máxima de 2 cm e o mesmo volume para todas as amostras. A subsuperfície do solo também foi amostrada para análises texturais e químicas. A análise do material biológico foi realizada em estereoscópio e microscópio óptico (400-1.000x) onde verificou-se que a composição florística é constituída por 13 táxons de cianobactérias destacando-se espécies filamentosas, 2 táxons de líquens e um táxon de briófitas. Os resultados mostram que a sequência de sucessão se mostrou desde estágios primários – com manchas de cianobactérias – a táxons mais evoluídos com musgos de grande espessura. Foram observadas diferentes morfologias para as CBS, seguindo os padrões taxonômicos suave, rugoso, pinacular e ondulado. As amostras de solo sub-superficiais, confirmaram a textura arenosa e baixa fertilidade dos Neossolos Quartzarênicos Órticos nos sítios de estudo. Uma conclusão geral a partir dos estudos prévios, dos materiais analisados e das observações em campo corrobora afirmações de pesquisas que alertam para a elevada suscetibilidade dos solos destes locais do Rio Grande do Sul a processos erosivos hídricos e eólicos. / This study aims to investigate the biological soil crusts (BSC) components in order to understand the behaviour and the interrelations of BSC in some areais (sand deposits with no vegetation cover) of Rio Grande do Sul (RS), the southernmost Brazilian State. It can be understood as an exploratory analysis of existing BSC in Pampa geographic sites in southwestern RS through floristic survey and soil characteristics. The research aims to contribute to studies on the role of the biotic component in pedogenesis and stability of the soil surface in sites under sandification processes. The samples were collected in May 2014 and 2015 in three locations, two per site, in Alegrete and São Francisco de Assis. The analysed site in Alegrete constitutes a sandy terrain covered with eucalyptus plantation (29°42'35.48''S and 55°25'13.47"W), while the sites in São Francisco de Assis are characterized by sands that suffer processes of ravine, one without human intervention (29°30'54.98"S and 55°07'23.07"W) and the other with artificially stabilised ravine (29°23'58.85"S and 55°13'37.60"W). The biological crusts were collected with inverted Petri dish to ensure a maximum depth of 2 cm and the same volume for all samples. The soil subsurface was also sampled for textural and chemical analysis. The analysis of biological material was carried out in the stereoscope and optical microscope (400-1000x) where it was found that the floristic composition consists of 13 taxa of cyanobacteria highlighting filamentous species, 2 taxa of lichens and 1 taxon of bryophytes. The sequence of succession showed from early stages - with spots of cyanobacteria – to most advanced taxa with thick mosses. Different morphologies were observed for BSC, following the taxonomic patterns smooth, rough, pinacular and wavy. The subsurface soil samples confirmed the sandy texture and low fertility of the Psamments in the study sites. general conclusion from previous studies of the analysed materials and field observations corroborates research statements that warn of the high susceptibility of soils from these sites in Rio Grande do Sul to water and wind erosion, so this study recommends adoption of maximum care of soil conservation for whatever the intended use of the studied areas.

abstract: Biological soil crusts (BSCs) dominate the soil surface of drylands in the western United States and possess properties thought to influence local hydrology. Little agreement exists, however, on the effects of BSCs on runoff, infiltration, and evaporative rates. This study aims to improve the predictive capability of an ecohydrology model in order to understand how BSCs affect the storage, retention, and infiltration of water into soils characteristic of the Colorado Plateau. A set of soil moisture measurements obtained at a climate manipulation experiment near Moab, Utah, are used for model development and testing. Over five years, different rainfall treatments over experimental plots resulted in the development of BSC cover with different properties that influence soil moisture differently. This study used numerical simulations to isolate the relative roles of different BSC properties on the hydrologic response at the plot-scale. On-site meteorological, soil texture and vegetation property datasets are utilized as inputs into a ecohydrology model, modified to include local processes: (1) temperature-dependent precipitation partitioning, snow accumulation and melt, (2) seasonally-variable potential evapotranspiration, (3) plant species-specific transpiration factors, and (4) a new module to account for the water balance of the BSC. Soil, BSC and vegetation parameters were determined from field measurements or through model calibration to the soil moisture observations using the Shuffled Complex Evolution algorithm. Model performance is assessed against five years of soil moisture measurements at each experimental site, representing a wide range of crust cover properties. Simulation experiments were then carried out using the calibrated ecohydrology model in which BSC parameters were varied according to the level of development of the BSC, as represented by the BSC roughness. These results indicate that BSCs act to both buffer against evaporative soil moisture losses by enhancing BSC moisture evaporation and significantly alter the rates of soil water infiltration by reducing moisture storage and increasing conductivity in the BSC. The simulation results for soil water infiltration, storage and retention across a wide range of meteorological events help explain the conflicting hydrologic outcomes present in the literature on BSCs. In addition, identifying how BSCs mediate infiltration and evaporation processes has implications for dryland ecosystem function in the western United States. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Geological Sciences 2015

O presente estudo propõe-se em investigar os componentes das crostas biológicas de solo (CBS) visando compreender o comportamento e as inter-relações das CBS em areais do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), no extremo meridional do Brasil. Pode ser entendido como uma análise exploratória de CBS existentes em nos areais do bioma Pampa, no sudoeste do RS, através de levantamento florístico e de características do solo. A pesquisa visa contribuir para estudos sobre o papel desse componente biótico na pedogênese e estabilidade da superfície de solos em áreas com processos de arenização. As amostras foram coletadas em maio de 2014 e 2015 em três locais, sendo duas por sítio, nos municípios de Alegrete e São Francisco de Assis. O sítio analisado em Alegrete se constitui de um areal recoberto por plantio de eucalipto, já os sítios em São Francisco de Assis se caracterizam por areais que sofrem processos de ravinamento, um sem interferência humana e o outro com ravina estabilizada artificialmente. As costas biológicas foram coletadas com placa de Petri invertida para garantir uma profundidade máxima de 2 cm e o mesmo volume para todas as amostras. A subsuperfície do solo também foi amostrada para análises texturais e químicas. A análise do material biológico foi realizada em estereoscópio e microscópio óptico (400-1.000x) onde verificou-se que a composição florística é constituída por 13 táxons de cianobactérias destacando-se espécies filamentosas, 2 táxons de líquens e um táxon de briófitas. Os resultados mostram que a sequência de sucessão se mostrou desde estágios primários – com manchas de cianobactérias – a táxons mais evoluídos com musgos de grande espessura. Foram observadas diferentes morfologias para as CBS, seguindo os padrões taxonômicos suave, rugoso, pinacular e ondulado. As amostras de solo sub-superficiais, confirmaram a textura arenosa e baixa fertilidade dos Neossolos Quartzarênicos Órticos nos sítios de estudo. Uma conclusão geral a partir dos estudos prévios, dos materiais analisados e das observações em campo corrobora afirmações de pesquisas que alertam para a elevada suscetibilidade dos solos destes locais do Rio Grande do Sul a processos erosivos hídricos e eólicos. / This study aims to investigate the biological soil crusts (BSC) components in order to understand the behaviour and the interrelations of BSC in some areais (sand deposits with no vegetation cover) of Rio Grande do Sul (RS), the southernmost Brazilian State. It can be understood as an exploratory analysis of existing BSC in Pampa geographic sites in southwestern RS through floristic survey and soil characteristics. The research aims to contribute to studies on the role of the biotic component in pedogenesis and stability of the soil surface in sites under sandification processes. The samples were collected in May 2014 and 2015 in three locations, two per site, in Alegrete and São Francisco de Assis. The analysed site in Alegrete constitutes a sandy terrain covered with eucalyptus plantation (29°42'35.48''S and 55°25'13.47"W), while the sites in São Francisco de Assis are characterized by sands that suffer processes of ravine, one without human intervention (29°30'54.98"S and 55°07'23.07"W) and the other with artificially stabilised ravine (29°23'58.85"S and 55°13'37.60"W). The biological crusts were collected with inverted Petri dish to ensure a maximum depth of 2 cm and the same volume for all samples. The soil subsurface was also sampled for textural and chemical analysis. The analysis of biological material was carried out in the stereoscope and optical microscope (400-1000x) where it was found that the floristic composition consists of 13 taxa of cyanobacteria highlighting filamentous species, 2 taxa of lichens and 1 taxon of bryophytes. The sequence of succession showed from early stages - with spots of cyanobacteria – to most advanced taxa with thick mosses. Different morphologies were observed for BSC, following the taxonomic patterns smooth, rough, pinacular and wavy. The subsurface soil samples confirmed the sandy texture and low fertility of the Psamments in the study sites. general conclusion from previous studies of the analysed materials and field observations corroborates research statements that warn of the high susceptibility of soils from these sites in Rio Grande do Sul to water and wind erosion, so this study recommends adoption of maximum care of soil conservation for whatever the intended use of the studied areas.

abstract: Biological soil crusts (BSCs), topsoil microbial assemblages typical of arid land ecosystems, provide essential ecosystem services such as soil fertilization and stabilization against erosion. Cyanobacteria and lichens, sometimes mosses, drive BSC as primary producers, but metabolic activity is restricted to periods of hydration associated with precipitation. Climate models for the SW United States predict changes in precipitation frequency as a major outcome of global warming, even if models differ on the sign and magnitude of the change. BSC organisms are clearly well adapted to withstand desiccation and prolonged drought, but it is unknown if and how an alteration of the precipitation frequency may impact community composition, diversity, and ecosystem functions. To test this, we set up a BSC microcosm experiment with variable precipitation frequency treatments using a local, cyanobacteria-dominated, early-succession BSC maintained under controlled conditions in a greenhouse. Precipitation pulse size was kept constant but 11 different drought intervals were imposed, ranging between 416 to 3 days, during a period of 416 days. At the end of the experiments, bacterial community composition was analyzed by pyrosequencing of the 16s rRNA genes in the community, and a battery of functional assays were used to evaluate carbon and nitrogen cycling potentials. While changes in community composition were neither marked nor consistent at the Phylum level, there was a significant trend of decreased diversity with increasing precipitation frequency, and we detected particular bacterial phylotypes that responded to the frequency of precipitation in a consistent manner (either positively or negatively). A significant trend of increased respiration with increasingly long drought period was detected, but BSC could recover quickly from this effect. Gross photosynthesis, nitrification and denitrification remained essentially impervious to treatment. These results are consistent with the notion that BSC community structure adjustments sufficed to provide significant functional resilience, and allow us to predict that future alterations in precipitation frequency are unlikely to result in severe impacts to BSC biology or ecological relevance. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Biology 2013