Thesis (PhD(Agric) (Agricultural Economics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation is an analysis of dairy production in the Midlands district of KwaZulu-Natal. The analysis of agricultural production generally ignores undesirable outputs that are produced alongside desirable outputs. This research attempted to integrate a model of nitrate leaching from dairy production into a multiple input/output representation of the production technology, together with the analysis of technical efficiency. Estimation of both technical efficiency and environmental efficiency were done following the parametric econometric stochastic frontier (SFA) and the nonparametric mathematical programming data envelopment analysis (DEA) approaches. The study used unbalanced panel data from 37 individual highly specialized dairy farms for the period 2000 to 2007 and totals to 2130 observations. Production functions for the three outputs; milk, animals and farm produced feed, were fitted as a simultaneous system to model the farms’ production activities for the econometric SFA estimation of technical efficiency. A single equation reduced form was fitted as a frontier to allow for the estimation of the relative efficiencies of the individual farms. The results showed that with data this detailed it was possible to refine the model until it fits very tightly. Indeed, in the gross output model that includes cows, there was nothing left to call inefficiency and what was clearly a frontier becomes a mean response function. Technical efficiency was further calculated using the nonparametric DEA approach using the same dataset. The estimation of environmental efficiency was done using both SFA and DEA approaches. Undesirable emissions of nitrate were represented within the models by calculating nitrogen surplus (kg/ha) for each farm. This nitrogen surplus value was based on the intensity of the use of nitrogen containing inputs and the nitrogen content of marketable products specific information and from farm data which were used to calculate a farm nitrogen balance. The stochastic estimation of environmental efficiency used the same data that were used for the estimation of technical efficiency. However, for the DEA calculation of environmental efficiency, a balanced cross-section dataset for 34 farms participating in a pasture-utilization programme was used. This dataset was used because it had quantities of nitrogen fertilizer and other nitrogen containing inputs. Results indicate that there was minimal “over-usage” (over production) of milk thus reducing milk output alone will not lead to improved environmental efficiency. Farm size, herd size, and quantity of nitrogen fertilizer applied, present the best scope of reducing nitrogen surplus thus improving environmental efficiency of the dairy farms. Reducing imported feed by relying more on home grown feed can also help reduce nitrogen surplus. This is feasible because dairy farmers in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands can produce most of the feed on farm. In summary, to obtain environmental efficiency milk production would have to be reduced by 80 litres per hectare; farm size by 73.69 ha; herd size by 33 cows, nitrogen fertilizer application by 74.3 kilograms per hectare; and imported feed by 13.4 kilograms of dry matter per hectare. The adjustments that would be required if environmentally inefficient farms were to adopt best practice technology and move towards their environmental production frontiers indicate that the production of pollutants (nitrogen surplus) could be reduced at negligible cost to milk production. The positive correlation between technical and environmental efficiencies indicates that improving environmental efficiency could be associated with improvements in technical efficiency. Thus, policies aimed at improving both efficiencies could have substantial rewards. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie tesis word suiwelproduksie in die Middellande van KwaZulu-Natal van nader beskou. Met die ontleding van landbouproduksie, word ongewenste uitsette wat saam met gewenste uitsette geproduseer word, gewoonlik oor die hoof gesien. Hierdie navorsing poog om ’n model van nitraatvrylating uit suiwelproduksie in ’n veelvuldige inset/uitset verteenwoordiging van die produksietegnologie, te integreer by die analise van tegniese doeltreffendheid. In opvolging van die benaderings tot die parametriese ekonometriese stogastiese front (SFA) en die omvattingsanalise ten opsigte van die nie-parametriese matematiese programmeringsdata, is beramings van sowel tegniese as omgewings doeltreffendheid gedoen. In die studie is gebruik gemaak van paneeldata van 37 individuele hoogs gespesialiseerde melkplase vir die tydperk 2000 tot 2007, wat altesaam 2130 waarnemings beloop. Produksiewerksaamhede vir die drie uitsette; melkproduksie en diere- en plaasgeproduseerde voer, is as ’n gelyklopende stelsel ingepas om die plase se produksiewerksaamhede vir die ekonometriese SFA-beramings van tegniese doeltreffendheid weer te gee. ’n Enkele vorm om gelykmaking te verminder is daargestel as ’n front vir die beraming van die relatiewe doeltreffendhede van die individuele plase. Die resultate het bewys dat data van hierdie omvang dit moontlik maak om die model sodanig te verfyn dat dit net-net inpas. By die bruto uitset-model waarby koeie ingesluit is, was daar inderdaad niks wat op ondoeltreffendheid gedui het nie en wat eers ’n duidelike front was, het ’n betekenisvolle responsfunksie geword. Voorts is tegniese doeltreffendheid bereken deur aanwending van die nie-parametriese DEAbenadering, deur gebruik te maak van dieselfde datastel. Die beraming van omgewingsdoeltreffendheid is gedoen deur gebruikmaking van sowel SFA- as DEA-benaderings. Ongewenste nitraatvrylatings is in die modelle gevind deur die stikstofsurplus vir elke plaas te bereken (kg/ha) Die waarde van hierdie stikstofsurplus is gebaseer op die intensiteit van die gebruik van stikstofbevattende insette en bepaalde inligting oor die stikstof-inhoud van bemarkbare produkte, sowel as van plaas data, wat gebruik is om ’n stikstofbalans vir die plaas te bereken. Dieselfde data wat aangewend is vir die beraming van tegniese doeltreffendheid, is gebruik om die stogastiese beraming van omgewingsdoeltreffendheid te bepaal. Vir die DEA-berekening van omgewingsxii doeltreffendheid, is egter ’n gebalanseerde kruisseksie datastel gebruik vir 34 plase wat aan ’n weidingsbenuttings-program deelgeneem het. Die bepaalde datastel is gebruik omdat dit dosisse stikstofbemestingstof en ander stikstofbevattende insette bevat het. Resultate het op minimale “oorgebruik” (oorproduksie) van melk gedui en daarom sal die vermindering van slegs die melkuitset nie lei tot verbeterde omgewingsdoeltreffendheid nie. Plaasgrootte, kuddegrootte en die dosis stikstof wat toegedien is, verskaf die beste beeld van verminderde stikstofsurplus, wat dus tot verbeterde omgewingsdoeltreffendheid op melkplase lei. Die vermindering van ingevoerde voer deur meer op plaasgeproduseerde voer staat te maak, kan ook meewerk om stikstofsurplus te laat daal. Dit kan gedoen word omdat melkboere in die Middellande van KwaZulu-Natal die meeste van die voer op die plaas kan produseer. Ter samevatting kan gesê word dat om omgewingsdoeltreffendheid te bereik moet melkproduksie met 80 liter per hektaar verminder word, plaasgrootte met 73.69 ha, kuddegrootte met 33 koeie, stikstofbemestingtoediening met 74.3 kilogram per hektaar en ingevoerde voer met 13.4 kilogram droë materiaal per hektaar. Die aanpassings wat nodig sal wees indien omgewingsdoeltreffende plase beste praktyk-tegnologie sou aanvaar en sou aanbeweeg na hulle omgewingsproduksiefronte, dui daarop dat die produksie van besoedelende stowwe (stikstofsurplus) verminder kan word teen geringe koste aan melkproduksie. Die positiewe verband tussen tegniese en omgewingsdoeltreffendhede, dui daarop dat die verbetering van omgewingsdoeltreffendheid, in verband gebring kan word met verbeterings in tegniese doeltreffendheid. Beleid wat op verbetering van beide doeltreffendhede gemik is, kan daarom aanmerklike voordele inhou.

The Canadian supply managed dairy sector is likely to face more competitive pressure from challenges through the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the changing global trade environment. Therefore, it is highly prudent for Canadian dairy producers to focus their concern on their level of competitiveness and how to improve it. This study investigated the competitiveness of Ontario dairy sector based on a sample of farm level data with a Box-Cox transformed econometric cost model. The data were gathered by the Ontario Dairy Farm Accounting Project, for the years 2005, 2006, and 2007. The impacts of output, yield per cow and several farm-specific characteristics on the average cost of milk production were examined. Results support the presence of significant size economies and yield economies within Ontario milk production. Minimum costs were achieved for farms with approximately 125 cows. The results also indicated that some farm-specific characteristics, breed and region, also had significant impacts on the cost of Ontario milk production. However, it appears that Ontario farms may find it difficult to survive if they are forced to face international competition. Even at their minimum, average costs were above an indicator international dairy price.

Increase in profits corresponding to a one unit increase in Estimated Breeding Value (EBV) for 3 production traits and for 21 type traits were estimated from 31,123 merged "Official" first lactation records, type records and Estimated Breeding Value (EBVs) records of Canadian Holstein cows using multivariate REML and a mixed model accounting for herd and year of calving effects. The same regression model was used to estimate the same profit increases corresponding to a one unit change in EBVs from 336 merged "Non-Official" first lactation records, type records and EBV records of Canadian Holstein Cows to investigate whether purebred breeders are selecting their animals according to type and production performances while commercial producers are selecting animals that maximize their milk profits. Finally, the usefulness of DHAS cow records for increasing milk profits was investigated by comparing the average profit level of cows with "Official" milk records and their time of registration under the DHAS scheme. / Size had the largest negative impact on profits, with estimates ranging from $-$41.70 $ pm$ 6.60 to $-$26.62 $ pm$ 5.91. Chest width and fore attachment had the largest positive impact on profits, with estimates ranging from 4.30 $ pm$ 5.94 to 16.82 $ pm$ 6.00 and from 4.71 $ pm$ 3.52 to 14.57 $ pm$ 3.97 respectively. Grade cows were found to have on average lower EBVs for most type and production traits than purebred cows. However, grade and purebred cows generated similar milk profits. Finally, the efficiency of using information provided by DHAS to increase profits did not increase with the number of years of participation with DHAS.

Thesis (M.Sc.) -- University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury, 1999. / Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 113-131).

Thesis (doctoral)--Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 2000. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 128-140).

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The purpose of this paper is to study the application of HACCP principles in dairy production systems for mitigation of potential water related hazards by control measures and legislation applicable at farm level. HACCP logical sequence approach including some principles of environmental risk assessment was the method used for the present study (FAO/IDF, 2004;Horchner et al., 2006). Literature review, farms visits, interviews, informal questionnaires and confirmation on site of the gathered information were the prerequisites of the study. Four flow diagrams in SA and three in Benin were drawn to describe the 11 steps relating the activities of the seven types of dairy farming systems recorded altogether in these countries (FAO/IDF, 2004,McCrindle, 2007). From the flow diagrams, almost three groups of 30 potential hazards were identified. Biological, chemical and physical hazards were characterized and their effects described according to the source, pathways, mechanisms, of water pollution. It was noticed that water use during farming activities is linked to the number of animals and is an important factor to qualify the magnitude of the risk of water pollution. Critical Control Points (CCPs) were identified. In SA, national legislation includes legal prerequisites for commercial dairy farming systems (SA GOVERNMENT 2005, 2006, 2007). Although water resources policies, strategies, legislation and management are strongly established, their implementation does not clearly include dairy by-products. In Benin dairy production strategy and development started in 2000. Basic legislation relating water resources is being updated. In commercial farming systems (F1 and F2 in SA), F7 in Benin, biological and chemical potential hazards are the main threat to water quality. Direct or indirect source of contamination due to manure, feces, urine, chemicals and stock remedies, waste water, occurs through husbandry practices (milking), pasture and housing. In SA, farmers are aware of International dairy standards, norms and practices such as GAP, GMP and GHP even if the practices are not completely respected. HACCP is not well yet well implemented at producer level althougth some commercial dairy processors have started the implementation of the system (FEDICS, 2004, CEBENOR, 2007). Environmental care (CCP11 and CCP12) are the main critical control points recorded which are not mitigated by the national legislation in both countries. In regard to traditional farming systems (F3, F4) and in SA, (F5, F6) in Benin, national legislation does not include prerequisites for biological and physical hazards; these are the main threat of water pollution and are due to direct or indirect contamination through drinking and grazing. Chemical hazards are not important because inputs of stock remedies are low in these systems. Farmers are not aware of International dairy standards, norms and practices such as GAP, GMP and GHP which are fairly respected. HACCP is unknown at producer level. CCPs relating animal treatment and care are partly mitigated by the national legislation. Stock remedies, drugs residues and Pharmaceuticals are controlled in both countries although Benin faces the introduction of uncontrolled veterinary drugs through illegal frontiers. The majority of the CCPs are not completely mitigated by national legislation for traditional dairy farms in both countries. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Paraclinical Sciences / unrestricted

Stearns County, Minnesota is the number-one dairy-producing county in the number-one dairy-producing region--the Midwest--in the country. The area has been home to German-Catholic immigrants from the Rheinland region of Germany since the mid- to late-1850s, when they traveled across Canada and the northeastern United States before finally settling on homesteads in Central Minnesota. 150 years later, the descendants of these settlers still live and farm the same area. Through it all, these farmers have kept a similar schedule: six days of fieldwork, Sunday for rest. And, nearly since the day they arrived in the area, that day of rest has featured one sacred leisure activity: baseball. The state of Minnesota boasts over 250 amateur baseball teams, the most of any state in the country. In the summer of 2012, I moved to Spring Hill, Minnesota, a town of 85, to play for the Spring Hill Chargers and work on the farm. My thesis lies at the intersection of farming and baseball, showing the reader both how little and how much has changed for these men who still farm their land of their forebears and still play America's game. A Summer in the Land of Milk tells my story of living and working in a rural area where the past hangs like a shadow and the future is frighteningly uncertain.

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