Thesis (Ph. D.)--Auburn University, 2009. / Abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 130-143).

Events of significant impact as recent as hurricane Ike yielded a consistent disturbing truth: we lack sufficient numbers of competent search dog [Canis familiaris] teams. This study was conceived to provide information in identifying factors involved in training competent search dogs. Obedience training methods, age training was initiated, previous handler canine training experience, and handler perception and emotional attachment to their search dog were examined through a sixty-six question survey. Achievement of a national certification was used as a measure of performance success. Association between factors and performance success was evaluated through Chi-Square testing. Surveys were announced through the National Search Dog Alliance (NSDA) and were available online; 177 were fully completed by respondents and used in the data analysis. Seventy-two percent of nationally certified canine team respondents preferred positive reinforcement methods. Several statistically significant associations were detected: (a) female handlers preferred positive reinforcement training methods [x^2 = 8.504, d.f.=1, P = 0.004], (b) as dogs matured use of active training equipment increased [x^2 = 54.043, d.f.= 2, P < 0.001]., and (c) four hours or more time spent training each week had a higher proportion of national certifications [x^2 = 16.379, d.f. = 1, P less than 0.001]. The data also indicated a trend for handlers to have previous canine training experience equal to or greater than search dog training experience [x^2 = 118.36, d.f. = 9, P =0.05]. The results warrant further research on the effects of early training, the effects of training time investment, and the interaction between canine selection and handler understanding of canine learning theory.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Trained canines are commonly used as biological detectors for explosives; however, there are some areas of uncertainty that have led to difficulties in canine training and testing. Even though a standardized container for determining the accuracy of explosives-detecting canines has already been developed, the factors that govern the amount of explosive vapor that is present in the system are often uncertain. This has led to difficulties in comparing the sensitivity of canines to one another as well as to analytical instrumentation, despite the fact that this container has a defined headspace and degree of confinement of the explosive. For example, it is a common misconception that the amount of explosive itself is the chief contributor to the amount of odor available to a canine. In fact, odor availability depends not only on the amount of explosive material, but also the explosive vapor pressure, the rate with which the explosive vapor is transported from its source and the degree to which the explosive is confined. In order to better understand odor availability, headspace GC/MS and mass loss experiments were conducted and the results were compared to the Ideal Gas Law and Fick’s Laws of Diffusion. Overall, these findings provide increased awareness about availability of explosive odors and the factors that affect their generation; thus, improving the training of canines. Another area of uncertainty deals with the complexity of the odor generated by the explosive, as the headspace may consist of multiple chemical compounds due to the extent of explosive degradation into more (or less) volatile substances, solvents, and plasticizers. Headspace (HS) and solid phase microextraction (SPME) coupled with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were used to determine what chemical compounds are contained within the headspace of an explosive as well as NESTT (Non-Hazardous Explosive for Security Training and Testing) products. This analysis concluded that degradation products, plasticizers, and taggants are more common than their parent explosive.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2006. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 102-116).

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Canines are regularly utilized by law enforcement agencies to detect explosives. However, the mechanism by which canines respond to explosive vapors is not well understood, leading to difficulties in canine training and testing. It is known that the amount of vapor generated from explosive compounds is dependent upon several factors including sample amount, vapor pressure, and the degree of confinement. Underlying these factors is the basic process of evaporation of an unconfined explosive, which is rucial to understanding how explosive vapors behave in other, more confined, systems. In Stage One of this study, evaporation rates were determined for several explosive liquids using an analytical balance. These rates were compared to one another as well as to theoretical models for the evaporation of liquids. In general and as expected, mass decreased linearly with time and evaporation rates decreased logarithmically as boiling point increased. Several examples of solvent “pinning” on a metal surface were also observed. While an empirical model for the evaporation of unconfined explosive liquids was developed, a comprehensive model for the escape of explosive vapors from sealed containers (i.e., a suitcase, knapsack, or IED container itself) is needed. The second part of Stage One of this study was to determine that the flow rate of explosive vapors escaping from relatively large orifices does not conform to Fick’s Law of Diffusion. Fick’s model states that the flow rate is linearly dependent upon the cross sectional area of the orifice and the material’s diffusion coefficient. Instead, the flow rate was found to be linearly dependent upon the diameter of the orifice due to the tendency of the flow to diffuse outwards from its circular edge. A clear relationship between flow rate and diffusion coefficient was seen, however. Additional uncertainty arises concerning the complexity of the odor generated from explosive compounds. Because explosive vapors are often complex (they consist of multiple chemical compounds), confusion exists regarding the cause of canine alert; that is the “odor compound” that allows for canine detection of various explosives. Although 2, 4- dinitrotoluene (DNT) has been explored as a potential odor compound, the possibility of a nitrated explosive inherently producing nitrated gas upon decomposition has not. Stage Two of this study focused on evaluating nitrate as a potential cause of canine alerts. An LC/MS method for the detection of nitrate ions in Composition C-4 and flake trinitrotoluene (TNT) was developed and tested. Instrumental analysis was not successful in detecting nitrate ions in any of the explosives tested. The lack of nitrate was confirmed using a diphenylamine color test for nitrates, thus eliminating nitrate as an odor compound and cause of canine alert to nitroaromatic compounds. 2, 4-DNT has been introduced as a potential odor compound of TNT, however, the mechanisms behind its vapor emission have not been thoroughly explored. More specifically, due to the “sticky” nature of the 2, 4-DNT isomer, the effects of surface adhesion to container walls are of concern. In particular, whether the amount of material lost to surface adhesion is significant enough to effect canine detection of TNT. A second focus of Stage Two explored this concern. A GC/MS method for the detection and separation of TNT and DNT isomers in liquid extracts was developed and the amount of 2, 4-DNT residues adhering to container walls was quantified. These values, compared to the amount 2,4-DNT expected to saturate each container (determined by the Ideal Gas Law), showed a significant preference of 2,4-DNT in the solid phase as opposed to in the gas phase. The amount of residue adhering to the walls of a gallon can differed from expected values by nearly 70%. The amount of material extracted from a quart can exceeded expected values by 137%. The apparent sticky nature of 2, 4-DNT resulted in a significant loss of material needed to fully saturate a container and thus canine detection success may be affected. In the final stage of this study, theories regarding odor compounds and odor availability of nitromethane, TNT, and Composition C-4 were tested using certified explosives-detecting canines. These trials included thirty-three canine-handler teams from eight government agencies. The odor availability of nitromethane was tested by placing varying volumes of nitromethane in containers with differing degrees of confinement and studying the effects on canine detection success. The odor availability trial showed no significant effect of sample amount or degree of confinement on canine detection so long as the sample volume was sufficient to saturate its container. In this study that volume was determined to be < 1 mL. Detection of 2, 4-DNT, TNT-NESST (Non-Hazardous Explosives for Security Training and Testing), and flake TNT were also studied using certified canines. The purpose of this was to identify the odorant responsible for canine alert to the explosive TNT. These trials showed a significant response to 2, 4-DNT compared to TNT and its training aid; this suggests that 2, 4-DNT is the primary cause of canine alerts to TNT. Additionally, Composition C-4 and RDX-NESTT were tested along with potential odor compounds that included the manufacturing solvent, cyclohexanone, the energetic “taggant” 2, 3-dimethyl-2.3-dinitrobutane (DMNB), the plasticizer dioctyladipate (DOA) and its degradation product 2-ethyl-1-hexanol. While some response to DMNB and cyclohexanone was seen, the most significant response was to the actual Composition C-4. This suggests that the cause of canine alert to Composition C-4 is the explosive mixture as a whole and not a single chemical component of the mixture

Serious and violent crime in South Africa (SA) has been on the rise in the last few years. The SAPS has been stretched to the maximum in its efforts of trying to stabilise the situation, and has applied various tactics and strategies to eradicate crime. This included, among other things, changes to the basic training programme and reintroduction of specialised units. The success or failure of any criminal investigation will still often depend on the detection and analysis of physical evidence found on the crime scene. Crimes such as rape will always leave behind physical evidence in the form of body-fluids. The detectives need not be experts in order to detect or analyse this physical evidence, but should be experienced enough to know which experts or investigative aids must be used to ensure maximum recovery of the evidence. The purpose of this study was to determine how the Biological Body-fluid Dog (BBFD) can assist detectives in the investigation of rape cases. The researcher has chosen a unique investigative aid in the form of man’s best friend, namely “The Police K9” (canine). The literature shows that trained police dogs have achieved outstanding success in numerous fields around the world, i.e. from narcotic busts, detection of explosives, to countering terrorist threats, to the most chilling search-and-rescue operations. The SAPS has sent its search-and-rescue dogs to many countries abroad to assist in natural disasters. Dogs have been trained by various police agencies for various purposes, but the BBFD dog is unique to the SAPS, and is trained to detect only human blood and semen. The use of K9s in the complex forensic science environment can never be doubted or overlooked. The main problem facing the Booysens SAPS was the low arrest and conviction rate in rape cases, due to a lack of evidence. The researcher hopes to broaden the detectives’ knowledge and skills regarding the objectives of crime investigation, with special focus on detection of physical evidence at rape crime scenes. The BBFD dog is trained to detect minute amounts of body fluid on any type or size of surface, including veld, bush areas, vehicles, carpets, grass, bedrooms, etc. / Police Practice / M.A. (Criminal Justice)