The relationship between school spending and academic performance is one that is constantly being assessed and evaluated. More rarely however, is the evaluation of how efficiently that spending is taking place. This paper used a method known as Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), to examine how efficiently Florida elementary schools were spending their funds to produce student gains in reading achievement. This paper found that schools (n=1,446) were performing on average at an approximate 61% relative efficiency level for the 2009-2010 school year. This paper then used OLS regression and various school-level demographic characteristics to see if school efficiency is able to be predicted, finding that student race, free and reduced lunch status, presence of exceptionalities, and school size to all be significant predictors of school-level efficiency. Finally, this paper examined the relationship between these differing efficiency scores and student individual differences, using a sample of n=677,386 Florida public elementary school students. In doing so, significant interactions between school efficiency and a student’s exceptionality and free and reduced lunch status were found, indicating the negative impact of having an exceptionality or being free and reduced lunch status to be further increased in lower efficiency schools. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / 2019 / September 30, 2019. / DEA, efficiency, ESE, exceptionalities, reading, socioeconomic status / Includes bibliographical references. / Sara A. Hart, Professor Directing Thesis; Chris W. Schatschneider, Committee Member; Andrea L. Meltzer, Committee Member.

Submitted to the Faculty of Education in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Master of Education in Educational Planning and Administration at the University of Zululand, 2010. / The study focused on developmental appraisal in primary schools at Esikhaleni senkosi ward.

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Across three papers in this dissertation, I investigate how perceptual and linguistic cues impact young children’s behavior and perceptions in the domain of STEM. Women and non-White people are underrepresented in STEM fields. One way to understand the early roots of the gender gap in STEM is to consider how the messages that children receive from adults and larger society shapes their understanding of who belongs in STEM and, consequently, who does not. The domain of STEM thus also presents a unique lens through which to study how group membership (or a lack thereof) influences children’s decision-making and beliefs in early childhood. In Paper 1, I focus on perceptual cues to belonging, investigating how visualizing groups of scientists that vary by gender impacts four- to six-year-old children’s STEM-related persistence and perceptions. In Paper 2, I focus on linguistic cues, examining whether four- to seven-year-old children prefer to learn from scientists described as innately brilliant or as hardworking. In Paper 3, I explore how the language and character diversity in a science storybook impacts five- to seven-year-old children’s science interest, feelings of self-efficacy, and persistence in STEM. I conclude by addressing implications of this work for psychology and educational settings and exploring future directions. / 2025-05-18T00:00:00Z

Previous research has shown that having a strong, positive ethnic-racial identity (ERI) for youth of color is associated with positive academic outcomes. Yet, research to understand the specific mechanisms through which this relationship exists is scarce. One explanation theorizes that ERI acts as a promotive factor within a supportive academic environment through a sense of belonging and community that is established. This dissertation study tests whether sense of school belonging mediates the relationship between youth’s ERI and their academic self-perceptions (i.e., self-efficacy, growth mindset, and agency) by using a subsample (N=1,671) of students of color (i.e., Black, Latino, Asian, Pacific Islander, American Indian or Native Alaskan, and multiracial identities), ages 13-19, who participated in a nationally representative survey regarding their high school experience. Results found that students of color who have a higher sense of ERI affirmation (i.e., more positive regard for one’s ethnic-racial group) and ERI process (i.e., increased exploration and resolution of one’s ethnic-racial identity) tend to have more positive academic self-perceptions. However, sense of school belonging partially mediated for the relationship between ERI process and academic self-perceptions specifically. The mediation model was significant regardless of whether a student self-identified as Black, Latino, or Asian. Implications of the findings, including the importance of facilitating the ethnic-racial identity development process for students of color through identity-affirming school contexts, are discussed. / 2025-05-18T00:00:00Z

Victimization has been consistently linked with maladjustment indices (e.g., Hanish & Guerra, 2002), however substantial variability exists in victim adjustment (Kochenderfer-Ladd & Skinner, 2002). Aggression and victimization occur in social interactions (i.e., involving a victim and at least one perpetrator), therefore examining how perpetrator characteristics impact adjustment may be one promising direction to understanding these individual differences. Attribution theory suggests that certain perpetrator characteristics (e.g., different-race perpetrators) may lead a victim to make external attributions in which they blame others (e.g., they’re prejudice), which in turn, may mitigate some of the negative consequences associated with victimization (Graham, Bellmore, Nishina, & Juvonen, 2009). On the other hand, social impact theory suggests that certain perpetrator characteristics (e.g., high popularity) that signify belonging to a larger, more powerful group may lead actions by these perpetrators to have broader reach and visibility throughout the social network, causing greater harm for the victim. This study examined how several perpetrator characteristics impacted four areas of victim adjustment (loneliness, studentship, peer preference, aggression) through the lens of attribution and social impact theory. The participants included 341 sixth grade students (54% female, Mage = 12.01, SD = 0.44, 49% Black) from a longitudinal project on children’s transition to middle school. Participants self-reported on their social and overt victimization experiences and also nominated perpetrators who victimized them. Several perpetrator characteristics were assessed (perpetrator sex, race, aggression, status, dislike, and social group), which were determined based on self-reported and peer-reported measures. The victim outcomes that were measured were loneliness (self-reported), studentship, peer preference, and aggression (peer-reported). Descriptive analyses revealed important differences in the victimization experience by victim sex and race. Female overt victims had an increased likelihood of being targeted by highly overtly aggressive male perpetrators. Female social victims on the other hand were targeted by a higher proportion of female, same-group perpetrators. Black victims were targeted by a higher proportion of same-race perpetrators, and White victims were targeted by a higher proportion of perpetrators in the same peer social groups. With regards to the impact of perpetrator characteristics on adjustment, results showed that victimization by in-group perpetrators was associated with less internalizing problems among social victims; victims of same-sex (primarily for female victims), same-race, and same-group perpetrators showed lower levels of loneliness. However, we did not find the same to be true among overt victims, the only overt perpetrator characteristic shown to significantly impact victim adjustment was perpetrator sex match. Among overt victims, victims of same-sex perpetrators had lower levels of peer preference, suggesting that acts of overt aggression by same-sex perpetrators may have greater visibility throughout the social network, leading to greater harm to a victim’s social reputation. These findings suggest that social victimization by in-group perpetrators may offer greater opportunity for reconciliation or greater context to the victimization that occurs, leading to less distress for victims. Overt victimization appeared to be harmful to victims regardless of perpetrator characteristics. This study provides an important first step in understanding perpetrator characteristics and the victim-perpetrator relationship and their influence on victim adjustment. Future research should include an examination of specific incidents of victimization to enhance our understanding of the impact perpetrators may have on a victimization experience and associated adjustment. / Psychology

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