During the preschool years, children across all cultures that have been tested seem to come to an explicit understanding of the fact that mental states are related to but ultimately separate from the reality that they are meant to represent. This understanding is sometimes called a representational theory of mind (RTM). I hypothesized that the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) would be associated with RTM development in preschoolers. I selected DA because several lines of work now suggest that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is critical for RTM and its development. In both animals and humans DA has been shown to play a crucial role in the development of frontal regions. In the first study, I recorded the spontaneous eyeblink rates (EBR) of 60 preschool aged children (range: 48-62 months) who were also given tasks that assessed their RTM and response-conflict executive functioning (RC-EF) skill. In both animal and human models EBR increases with available DA, and thus EBR can be used as an indirect measure of DA functioning. Regression analyses showed that EBR predicted unique variance in RTM and one Stroop-like measure of RC-EF performance after controlling for the effects of age and language ability. In the second study, I also administered a battery of RTM and RC-EF tasks to 79 preschool aged children (range: 42- 54 months). I recorded their spontaneous EBR in addition to collecting genetic material which was processed for allelic variations of DA turnover, transport, and receptor genes. Polymorphisms of catechol-O-methyl transferase gene (COMT) and the dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4) were associated with children’s RTM performance. These findings provide preliminary evidence that DA functioning is associated with RTM development in the preschool years. Results suggest that there may be a selective effect of DA on RTM ability. / Thesis (Master, Psychology) -- Queen's University, 2009-09-08 12:45:24.627

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Graduate

<p> Caregivers interacting with young children in natural settings have been found to provide language input that is in tune with the child's output in terms of mean length of utterance (MLU). Previous research suggests that caregivers provide language input within the child's proximal zone of language development, that is 2.0-3.0 morphemes ahead of their child's MLU. The purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate whether speech-language pathologists (SLP) working in early intervention tailor their input in the same way. </p><p> Communication interactions between six speech-language pathologists and their toddler aged clients between the ages of 28 and 33 months were audio recorded during one of their regularly scheduled speech and language intervention sessions. MLUs for the SLPs and the children were calculated for each intervention dyad via the Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT) version 2012 computer software program. The MLU of each SLP was then compared to the MLU of her client. Data analysis revealed that three of the six SLPs directed their language input to the child at levels within the child's proximal zone of language development, between 2.0 and 3.0 morphemes greater than the child's MLU. The other three SLPs provided input at levels that exceeded the 2.0 to 3.0 morpheme range. Qualitative analysis suggest that factors other than the children's MLUs, such as their language comprehension levels, may have been a factor in the complexity levels of the SLPs input. Future research, employing larger sample sizes and careful measures of the children's language comprehension and cognitive levels, is indicated.</p>

<p> Raising an adopted child from the child welfare system poses unique challenges because these children bring with them an increased risk for developmental and mental health problems (Simmel, 2007; Whitten &amp; Weaver, 2010). Adoptions from Child Welfare have almost doubled in the last decade, comprising up to 41% of all adoptions (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2012). Of these adoptions, anywhere from 10% to 25% end up disrupting (Briggs &amp; Webb, 2004; Festinger, 2002; Rosenthal &amp; Groze, 1994; Smith &amp; Howard, 2000). Thus, it is important to identify and understand which factors can likely increase adoption success or which ones are more likely to create barriers. Currently, there are some studies that have identified specific adoptive child traits that increase disruption (Barth, 1997; Barth &amp; Berry, 1988; Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute, 2010; Rosenthal &amp; Grove, 1990) along with some family factors (Barth, 2000; Coakley &amp; Berrick, 2008; Festinger, 2002). However, two important family systems aspects, involving qualities that the adoptive parent themselves bring to the process, have thus far been overlooked in the research: attachment styles and parenting styles. In order to shed more light on this neglected aspect of the adoptive process, this study investigated whether or not there was a relationship between an adoptive caregiver's own attachment style or parenting style and adoption outcomes. The logistic regression method was used in the analysis of a convenience sample of 113 adoptive parents and it was found that two parental factors were the most influential in predicting adoption outcomes: anxious attachment style and authoritative parenting style. Additionally, incidence of trauma in the parent's history was identified as a factor that negatively impacted the chance of adoption success. The implications or clinical practice and research are discussed.</p>

<p> Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are characterized by deficits in social interaction. Research with ASD children has dramatically underrepresented fathers, who have only recently been considered as targets for parenting interventions and research. Parenting research with typically developing (TD) children has found that parental involvement (of mothers and fathers) is associated with child social development. Extending such findings to the ASD field is important as social development is a primary concern within this population. The present study sought to do so through an internet questionnaire targeting mothers and fathers. Specifically, this study examined associations between mother involvement, father involvement and their interaction with child social skills in families of children with ASD using multilevel modeling in a multi-rater, multi-measure design. We proposed a model in which parental involvement may foster child social development, but also noted child that social skills may encourage or discourage parental involvement. Father, but not mother, involvement (quality) and engagement (time) were each found to significantly and positively predict child social skills in 101 families of children with ASD. Implications of these findings for research and intervention are discussed.</p>

<p> The association between stress and illness is well recognized. One recently proposed pathway between these constructs is the Allostatic Load framework, which is a biological-process model in which chronic stress is linked to physiological dysregulation. The current study tested one part of the Allostatic Load process model by looking at a spectrum of chronic stressors experienced in everyday life by healthy, typically&macr;-developing children during middle childhood, to find out whether their exposures are associated with the development of Allostatic Load at age 15. This was done by utilizing the National Institute of Child Health and Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (NICHD SECCYD) data and drawing on the Allostatic Load model. The level of chronic stress experienced during middle childhood is associated positively with Allostatic Load in adolescence. The Home/Family context is more predictive of Allostatic Load in adolescence than stress experienced in the Extrafamilial context. However, this relationship is moderated by the sex of the research participant: the relationship between Home/Family stress and Allostatic Load was only significant for males. In contrast, the relationship between Extrafamilial stress and Allostatic Load was only significant for females.</p>

<p> Although the deleterious social and emotional effects of trauma exposure on adults and older children are well documented, less is known about the effects of trauma on young children. Preliminary studies have indicated that young children (a) are exposed to traumatic events (e.g. Perry et al., 1995; Mongillo et al., 2009) (b) experience social and emotional problems (e.g. Scheeringa et al., 2006; Bogat et al., 2006) and (c) are affected by the caregiver-child relationship (e.g. Osfosky, 2000). However, no known study has compared social and emotional problems among trauma-exposed young children to a comparison group of non trauma-exposed young children connected to mental health services. This study aimed to strengthen the research and clinical literature by examining unique social-emotional and trauma-specific symptoms of 47 trauma-exposed service-involved young children (18 to 69 months of age) compared to 25 non trauma-exposed, service-connected young children. Additionally, this study examined the predictive nature of child temperament and the caregiver-child relationship (i.e. caregiver affect, responsiveness and intrusiveness) on the severity of the child's internalizing symptoms. Seventy-two young children and their primary caregivers, mostly mothers (82%) participated in the current study. Trauma exposure, social/emotional problems, and trauma-specific symptoms were measured by a variety of caregiver reports and interviews. Further, the caregiver-child relationship was examined using the Crowell Modified Parent-Child Relationship Scale. Regarding trauma exposure, 65.2% of the sample was exposed to a traumatic event, with many children (54%) being exposed to multiple traumatic events. Among trauma-exposed children, approximately 10% were exhibiting trauma-related reactions. Among MANCOVA and ANCOVAs, no statistically significant differences emerged among trauma-exposed and non trauma-exposed young children for social and emotional problems, trauma-specific symptoms, or observed distress in the caregiver-child relationship. Child temperament and caregiver depressive symptoms statistically significantly predicted child outcomes. In a hierarchical multiple regression examining the predictive nature of the caregiver-child relationship, only child temperament emerged as a statistically significant predictor. </p><p> Despite null findings, this study served as a pilot study examining unique social/emotional problems among service-involved trauma-exposed and non trauma-exposed young children allowing future studies to determine recommended sample sizes (200 and above is needed). Issues related to assessment of trauma symptoms in young children are discussed. Recommendations are provided for clinicians. For example, both child temperament and caregiver distress should be a focus of assessment and intervention in trauma-exposed young children. Detailed recommendations are provided to improve the reliability and validity of the Modified Parent-Child Relationship Scale. Recruitment recommendations and future directions are offered.</p>

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