Bulk chemical analysis of a combined municipal solid waste (MSW) bottom and fly ash from one facility showed most elements enriched over average soil abundances. Eleven minerals were identified using powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). Standard additions using XRD gave the following weight % minerals (±2σ): gypsum, 1.8 ± 1.9; hematite, 3.7 ± 1.7; quartz, 2.3 ± 1.0; spinel, approximately 3.5; halite, 0.5 ± 0.4; calcite 3.5 ± 1.9; rutile, 1.1 ± 1.3. Mullite, sylvite, anhydrite, and wüstite were also identified. The ash contained 18% minerals, 9% structural and adsorbed water, and 72% glass. Chemical sequential extraction showed that most Cr is present in phases resistant to chemical weathering, while significant Cd and Pb are sequestered in acid soluble (carbonate) phases. Little of these toxic trace metals are water soluble or in exchangeable surface sites. Batch reactors experiments showed that ash-water solutions were dominated by ions released by soluble salts. Three types of reactions are identified. 1) After rapid exhaustion of soluble salts, sodium and potassium exhibited nearly steady state behavior due to slow release of ions from less-soluble minerals and glasses. 2) Calcium and sulfate concentrations are controlled by either gypsum or anhydrite equilibrium after a few hours. Iron, aluminum, and manganese concentrations rapidly equilibrate with respect to hydroxide or oxide solid phases. 3) Silicon clearly shows temperature dependent kinetic behavior, but its rate of release into solution is slowed by back-reaction of a secondary silicate phase. Calculation of the CIPW normative minerals for MSW ash showed it to be analogous to a tholeiitic basalt. Over the long term, the concentrations of elements in MSW ash will continue to change and can be predicted by Goldschmidt's concept of ionic potential, and mineralogical changes can be predicted based on weathering of basalts. Comparisons of literature values showed that field MSW ash leachates contained higher concentrations of soluble salts and lower concentrations of magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, and nickel than uncombusted refuse leachates. Comparison of chromium, cadmium, lead, and arsenic concentrations did not clearly delineate which leachate contains more of these elements. / Ph. D.

Municipal water and wastewater systems in Virginia are faced with substantial capital needs for the expansion, replacement, and improvement of existing facilities, and the construction of new facilities. To compound this problem, the financial environment surrounding these utilities is changing from one in which grant financing is being replaced by debt financing, and the overall availability of federal and state aid is declining. The literature on utility management emphasizes the use of a "user-pays" approach that makes use of a comprehensive method of cost analysis. This thesis tests the hypothesis that a uniform, comprehensive cost analysis method can be developed to effectively meet the cost analysis needs of municipal water and wastewater systems in Virginia. This is accomplished in a four step process: development and distribution of a questionnaire to all municipal water and wastewater systems in Virginia; analysis of the survey results; description and analysis of the Government Finance Officers Association's comprehensive cost analysis workbook for water and wastewater utilities; and evaluation of this workbook in several Virginia communities. The results of this work show that a comprehensive cost analysis method can be developed which will effectively meet the cost analysis needs of water and wastewater operations in Virginia. However, such a method does have its shortcomings, and further research is recommended. / Master of Urban Affairs

This thesis presents the development of a numerical model for one-dimensional pollutant transport in a porous medium. A computer program POLUTE1D has been developed. The numerical model is based on the flow and mass transport equations and the finite element method has been used for its formulation. The problem involves unsaturated flow and convective dispersive transport of a contaminant species. A literature survey on the evaluation of the dispersion coefficient is included. A waste disposal dump site is analysed as a one-dimensional problem by using this model. The effect of the liner thickness, the liner permeability, the ponding head and the initial condition of the porous domain on the spread of the contaminant is studied. Conclusions are presented based on a parametric study. / M. Eng.

M.S.

Darvill Wastewater Works (DWWW) receives and treats both domestic and industrial wastewater from the city of Pietermaritzburg, in KwaZulu-Natal. Sludge from the wastewater treatment is sprayed onto surrounding lands, causing odour and fly problems. The plant also discharges treated effluent into the Msunduzi River, compromising water quality. This study uses several economic valuation techniques to estimate the value of the benefits of improving air and water quality to overcome these problems caused by DWWW. The benefits. are then compared with the costs of upgrading DWWW to see whether or not upgrading DWWW to improve air and water quality would be worthwhile. The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) was used to elicit people's willingness to pay (WTP) for improvements in air quality due to the elimination of odours and flies caused by sludge deposited by DWWW. The WTP estimates reflect individual's preferences for improvements in air quality. The stated WTP amounts were positively related to household income, but negatively related to the age and gender of the respondent and the number of dependants in the household. The mean monthly WTP for the surveyed households is higher for those that are closer to the pollution source (R23.00 and R29.00 for Zones land 2) and less for those further away (RI4.00 for Zone 3). Sobantu residential area had the lowest mean monthly WTP (R18.00), followed by Lincoln Meade (R27.00) and Hayfields (R54.00). This is expected, as Sobantu has relatively high levels of unemployment and lower household incomes. Strategic, hypothetical and free rider bias may have led to the unexpected signs of some estimated regression coefficients in linear regression models used to estimate WTP. The mean WTP was estimated as R307.20 per annum per household, and when this is aggregated over the total population in the residential areas impacted by odours and flies (37192 households), the benefits of eliminating odours and flies are estimated as R11 425 382.00 per annum. A hedonic price method was used to quantify the decline in property values as a result of odours and flies caused by sludge deposited by DWWW. Properties experienced a R6650.08 decline in selling price if the distance from them to DWWW is decreased by one kilometre. Properties that are closer to DWWW were worth RI5 953.90 less than those further away from DWWW. Aggregating these values over all estimated impacted households in the study, gives an estimated benefit of improving air quality of R28 480 518.00 per annum. The impact of water pollution was quantified by estimating the revenue (R3 744 975.00) that would be lost by Pietermaritzburg if the Duzi Canoe Marathon were to be cancelled due to incidences of diarrheoa reported during the race. A cost of illness procedure was adopted to quantify the effect of water pollution on the health of communities that use the Msunduzi River as a source of potable water supply. A value of R1 243 372.50 was estimated as the annual cost of water-related illnesses in these rural areas. This value represents the costs of the river pollution to those communities. Both of these exercises indicated that improving water quality of the Msunduzi River would be beneficial to society. The effect of nutrient enrichment of the Msunduzi River was quantified by estimating the cost of removing water hyacinth from the Inanda Dam, treatment cost at Wiggins water treatment works and the value of recreation at Mahlabathini Park (Inanda Dam). The annual cost of removing water hyacinth was estimated from the direct costs of chemicals and labour as R47 202.15. The increased treatment costs at Wiggins attributable to DWWW were estimated as R1 104 999.20 and R956 924.15 per annum for removal of algae, and tastes and odours, respectively. The value of R706.90 per annum was estimated as the consumer surplus accruing to recreationists, and, therefore, the value of recreation at Mahlabathini Park to an individual. These annual benefits, when aggregated over the total study population (296 590) were over two hundred million rands (R209 659 470.00). The estimated total benefits (R256 662 840.00) of eliminating odours and flies and effluent problems were compared to the actual costs of two alternative methods of upgrading DWWW using cost-benefit analysis. These alternatives were co-disposal option (R170 473 320) and a land disposal option (R168 809377). Benefit-cost ratios of 1.51 and 1.52 suggest that from society's standpoint, it would be beneficial to upgrade the plant in order to eliminate its adverse environmental impacts. The study results have important implications for policy makers, both the DWWW management and the Pietermaritzburg-TLC municipality. At present DWWW is operating beyond its design capacity, and this problem, together with the poor status of Pietermaritzburg's reticulation system, causes overflow of untreated or compromised final effluent into the Msunduzi River during rainy seasons. These problems also impact on the efficient operation of the plant as the sludge is not properly digested before being sprayed onto surrounding land. Thus to prevent further environmental degradation, a fundamental basis of the National Environmental Management Act, DWWW would need to address these issues. Upgrading DWWW would be a short-term solution if the problems with the storm-runoff into the plant is not addressed. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

Thesis (M.Sc. (Aquaculture)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014 / Population growth in urban areas is putting pressure on sewage treatment plants. The improper treatment of sewage entering the aquatic ecosystems causes deterioration of the water quality of the receiving water body. The effect of sewage effluent on the Sand River was assessed. Eight sampling sites were selected, site 1 and 2 were upstream of the of the sewage treatment plant along the urbanised area of Polokwane, whilst sites 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 were downstream. The physicochemical parameters and coliform counts in the water samples were determined. Macroinvertebrate abundances and diversity (H') was determined at the different sites during the dry and rainy season. The water quality status of the Sand River with respect to the South African scoring system (SASS) scores and average score per taxon (ASPT) was determined. A linear regression was performed to test the correlation of the SASS scores with abundance and H'. Heavy metal concentrations in water, sediment, grass (Ishaemum fasciculatum) and fish (Oreochromis mossambicus) at the sites were evaluated. The suitability of the Sand River and surrounding borehole water for irrigation was also determined. Hierarchical average linkage cluster analysis produced two clusters, grouping two sites above the sewage treatment works and six sites downstream of the sewage effluent discharge point. Principal component analysis (PCA) identified total nitrogen, total phosphorus, conductivity and salinity as the major factors contributing to the variability of the Sand River water quality. These factors are strongly associated with the downstream sites. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) indicated that Chironomidae family was found on the nitrogen gradient during the dry season. However during the rainy season, Chironomidae was found in the centre of the ordination which indicated that it was ubiquitous. Escherichia coli levels (1463.73 counts/100ml) in the maturation ponds of Polokwane wastewater treatment works could potentially lead to contamination of the Polokwane aquifer. High diversity was recorded at the sites before discharge and the sites further downstream. There was significant correlation (P<0.05) between the SASS scores and macroinvertebrate diversity during the dry season (R2=0.69) and the rainy season (R2=0.77). Fish samples had significantly higher (P<0.05) iron and copper concentrations, while the vi sediment had significantly higher lead concentration (P>0.05). The United States salinity laboratory (USSL) diagram indicated that the sodium hazard (SAR) and alkalinity hazard (conductivity) was low and the Sand River and borehole water was suitable for irrigation. The residual sodium carbonate (RSC) was below 1.24 meq/l, also indicating that both the Sand River and borehole water is still suitable for irrigation. The total phosphorus concentrations fluctuated across the different site. Total nitrogen concentrations showed a gradual decrease downstream from the point of discharge. The coliform levels also showed a gradual decrease downstream. This shows that the river still has a good self-purification capacity.

Municipal Solid Waste generation has become an inevitable consequence of lifestyles and daily living. However, the nature (quantity and quality) of this waste stream can vary and is largely dependent upon the manner in which waste production is managed, by both government and the public. The increasing practices of littering, dumping and burning of solid waste by households (and industries though not extensively dealt with in this study) in South Africa has led to the finding that municipal solid waste is being irresponsibly managed. In this regard, it becomes necessary to investigate the attitudes and behaviour of individuals and households toward solid waste practices, which further include mitigating measures such as reduction, reuse and recycling for the generation of solid waste. The role of the South African government in providing a refuse removal and safe disposal service to all citizens is suggestive of the responsible role of government to ensure that solid waste is being effectively managed by all sectors of society. The aims of this study in light of the above were to review the municipal solid waste policies and strategies of local government authorities in South Africa, highlighting the shortcomings and discrepancies that exist between legislative policies and actual management practices; which is also reflective of the attitudes and approaches to solid waste management by households. This was achieved by focusing on the case study of the Msunduzi Municipality and included investigations into socio-economic and cultural influences on solid waste disposal practices. The objectives of the study were achieved by means of a questionnaire survey that elicited specific responses from 650 sampled households in five suburbs of differing socio-economic status. A further analysis to identify the nature of household municipal solid waste for landfilling from three suburbs of differing socio-economic status was conducted by categorizing 25 tons of garbage at the New England Road Landfill Site, leading to inferences about consumer purchasing power and disposal practices. Further, key personnel in the Msunduzi Municipality’s waste management division were interviewed to ascertain the solid waste challenges faced at local municipal and national levels of government. The study revealed several significant findings of which the most important is that the implementation of South Africa’s national municipal solid waste legislation policies and strategies are inconsistent with local government practices and procedures; thus compromising equity, efficiency, effectiveness and the sustainability of municipal solid waste disposal. Factors contributing to this are shown to be inadequate management and service delivery. The research has shown that monitoring and control systems which purported to ensure environmental sustainability are lacking and inadequately address issues where the implementation of municipal solid waste regulations are in contravention with national solid waste policies. The outcomes of the questionnaire survey and the assessment of household municipal solid waste for landfilling reveal that socio-economic status and culture do in fact influence the nature of solid waste and the disposal methods used by residents. The receptiveness of households towards adopting suggested municipal solid waste disposal practices was also investigated. The non-compliance of residents with municipal solid waste legislation and policies points towards a lack of monitoring and control measures, thereby not providing for a sustained and adequate service delivery which is environmentally sound. The research further suggests that all sectors of the South African public and the government are inadequately informed in terms of aspects of municipal solid waste. This has led the researcher to recommend that further education and awareness campaigns and its role in environmental sustainability are needed so that a sharing of responsibility between government and the public can be effected to aid municipal solid waste management in the country. It is argued that the insight into the roles of socio-economic status and cultural influences over solid waste practices provide a platform from which municipal authorities can work to specifically address the problems associated with municipal solid waste at a community level. It is the task of the national government to ensure that South Africa’s municipal solid waste is being responsibly managed at the local municipal levels so that the health and safety of the environment and its citizens are suitably addressed, hence the focusing on solid waste legislation and national policies (which have been recognized internationally as being environmentally sound and sustainable) must be translated in terms that local municipalities can adopt, assuming that they have been sufficiently empowered in terms of both knowledge and adequate budgeting. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Thesis (MTech (Public Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / The communities of Khayelitsha face problems with regard to managing waste. Increase on the generation of solid waste in the households by the members of the community; far exceed the townships’ ability and capability for safe disposal. Littering in the township is also a persistent problem, despite various clean–up and anti-litter promotional campaigns and programs introduced by local government, private organizations and other community interest groups. The persistent problem of litter and mismanagement of solid waste in the household should be addressed. The rationale and assumption underpinning this study was that waste management problems are related to social norms and attitude of the people of Khayelitsha. To investigate this phenomenon, the study adopted a qualitative paradigm. 300 heads of household residing in Khayelitsha for more than 5 years were surveyed, and door to door interview questions were conducted in 2016 June. Data from the questionnaire were analysed using Thematic and coding analysis. NVivo software was used to generate frequency tables. The responses to most interview questions were consistent for all categories of respondents and did not vary according to respondents’ background, such as gender, location household size or education. The study showed that social norms and attitudes towards waste minimisation in Khayelitsha are related to the entire waste management operation, and householders in Khayelitsha think similarly. To improve waste management in Khayelitsha the following are recommended: • Government and business need to consider incentives to minimise waste; • Government needs to improve waste management service facilities and build recycling centre which are accessible to the community; and • Government and non-governmental organizations and community members should consider awareness, education and training programs on waste wise management.

Thesis (MPH.) -- University of Limpopo, 2016. / Background: Health care workers produce various types of waste in the course of rendering health care services. Each classification of waste must be disposed according to the prescribed guidelines. Improper disposal of waste may pose a danger to employees, patients and the environment. Health care workers must have adequate knowledge on disposal of medical waste. This study was therefore done to determine the knowledge and practices of health care workers on medical waste disposal. Objectives: This study aims to determine the knowledge and practices of health care workers on medical waste disposal at a hospital in the Mpumalanga Province in South Africa. Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional research approach was used at a regional hospital for the Mpumalanga Province in the Bushbuckridge Municipality under the Ehlanzeni District. The study respondents included professional nurses, enrolled nurses, enrolled nursing assistants, medical doctors, dental health and allied health staff. Data were collected through self-administered questionnaires analysed using International Business Management Statistical Package for Social Sciences 22 (IBM SPSS 22). Results: The results show that a high percentage of health care workers did not have adequate knowledge regarding disposal of medical waste but disposed medical waste appropriately. The results further show that knowledge and practice of health care workers had no association with age, gender and years of experience. There is an association between professional category and knowledge and practice of healthcare workers. Conclusion: Disposal of medical waste is the responsibility of all health care workers. There should be regular training of all categories of health care workers to improve their knowledge on disposal of medical waste and minimise the risks associated with improper waste management. This will further increase compliance with the guidelines of disposal of medical waste. Key words: Health care workers, medical waste, knowledge, practice, disposal