Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Introduced species displace native species and alter ecological communities, affect agriculture as well as human health and are economically costly to eradicate. Long term monitoring of introduced species including the documentation of levels of genetic variation is therefore of the utmost importance. This study investigated the distribution of genetic variation in two introduced species distributed across South Africa the bud gall-forming wasp Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae and the Argentine ant Linepithema humile. The bud gall-forming wasp was introduced into South Africa as a biological control agent to curb the spread of the invasive long-leaved wattle Acacia longifolia. In addition to the intended (target) host, the bud gall-forming wasp has also colonised A. floribunda, a noninvasive ornamental plant. Limited genetic variation was found across South Africa based on the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. Only 3 haplotypes characterized 53 individuals collected from 23 localities (nucleotide diversity £k = 0.002 ¡Ó 0.001, haplotype diversity h = 0.482 ¡Ó 0.045). No significant partitioning of genetic variation was found across South Africa including between host plants (target host = A. longifolia, non target host = A. floribunda) or between the core (sites of introduction) and edge (naturally dispersed) sites (ƒ¶ST = 0.094, P = 0.288). The limited genetic variation and the absence of significant genetic structure are congruent with patterns described for many other introduced species and may suggest that propagule pressure plays only a minor role in species establishment and spread of the gall-forming wasp across South Africa. Mitochondrial and nuclear markers were used to describe the distribution of genetic variation within Argentine ants across their introduced range in South Africa. For the mitochondrial DNA, low genetic diversity was found for the COI gene with only five haplotypes, separated by single mutational changes, characterizing 101 specimens from 35 localities (nucleotide diversity π = 0.001 ± 0.001, haplotype diversity h = 0.151 ± 0.048). Notwithstanding the low levels of genetic diversity, mitochondrial variation was significantly structured (ST = 0.54, P < 0.001) across the landscape. In contrast, microsatellite analyses of 230 ants from 23 localities, employing six polymorphic microsatellite markers, revealed a relatively high amount of genetic diversity (HE = 0.51 ± 0.22). Significant population structure was similarly evident (RST = 0.14, P < 0.001) with the localities of Elim2, Porterville2 and Bloemfontein2 clustering as a distinct population from the remainder of the localities. Importantly, individuals from these localities also had a unique mitochondrial haplotype and, when taken with the nuclear results, may indicate the occurrence of more than one introduction event (and possibly more than one colony) in South Africa. This is further underscored by the presence of unique microsatellite alleles in these three populations. In an attempt to establish the source populations for the introduction of Argentine ants into South Africa, mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences were generated for a subset of ants representing the two major genetic clades across South Africa. A comparison with the published data from across the world including the native range of the Argentine ant in South America grouped Argentine ants from South Africa with three potential source populations namely Ocampo and Rosario in Argentina and Passo do Lontra in Brazil. The results of this study underscore the role of human-mediated dispersal in shaping the levels of genetic variation in both species. Human-mediated dispersal can lead to genetic homogenization across populations. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Indringer spesies verplaas of verander ekologiese gemeenskappe, beinvloed landbou asook menslike gesondheid en is ekonomies duur om te verwyder. Langtermyn monitering van indringer spesies asook die dokumentasie van genetiese variasie is dus baie belangrik. Hierdie studie bestudeer die verspreiding van genetiese variasie in twee indringer spesies wat regoor Suid-Afrika voorkom, naamlik die kroongal-vormende wespe Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae en die Argentynse mier Linepithema humile. Die kroongal-vormende wesp is na Suid Afrika gebring as biologiese beheeragent om die verspreiding van indringer lang-blarige wattle Acacia longifolia te beveg. Die kroongalvormende wespe het sowel die teiken spesies, asook A. floribunda, ‘n nie-indringer ornamentele plant gekoloniseer. Beperkte genetiese variasie is gevind regoor Suid Afrika gebasseer op die mitochondriale DNA sitokroom-oksidasie subeenheid I (COI) geen. Slegs 3 haplotipes karakteriseer 53 indiviue van 23 bevolkings (nukleotied diversiteit π = 0.002 ± 0.001, haplotiep diversiteit h = 0.482 ± 0.045). Geen beduinde groepering van genetiese variase is gevind regoor Suid Afrika nie (ST = 0.094, P = 0.288). Hierdie bevinding geld onafhanklik van die gasheer plant (teiken gasheer = A. longifolia, nie-teiken gasheer = A. floribunda). Ook is geen beduidende genetiese groepering gevind tussen die sentrale (plek van inisiele blootstelling) en perifêre (natuurlik verspreide) lokaliteite nie. Die kleinskaalse genetiese variase en die afwesigheid van beduidende genetiese struktuur wat hier gevind is, verskil van die patrone wat voorheen vir baie ander indringer-spesies beskryf is. Dit mag daarop dui dat ‘propagule’ druk slegs ’n klein rol speel in spesies-vestiging en verspreiding van die galvormende wespe regoor Suid-Afrika. Mitochondriale asook kern merkers is gebruik om die verspreiding van genetiese variasie in Argentynse miere in Suid Afrika te beskryf. Vir die mitochondriale DNA is lae genetiese variase gevind vir die COI geen, met slegs 5 haplotipes, gedifferensieer deur enkele mutasie veranderinge wat 101 monsters van 35 lokaliteite karakteriseer (nukleotied diversiteit π = 0.001 ± 0.001, haplotiep diversiteit h = 0.151 ± 0.048). Desondanks die lae genetiese variasie, is gevind dat mitochondriale variasie beduidend gestruktureerd is (ST = 0.54, P < 0.001) oor die landskap. Hierteenoor het mikrosatelliet analises van 230 miere van 23 lokaliteite, deur gebruik te maak van ses polimorfiese mikrosatelliet merkers, ’n relatiewe hoë hoeveelheid genetiese diversiteit aangedui. Beduidende bevolkingstruktuur was ook gevind (RST = 0.14, P < 0.001) in die areas Elim2, Porterville2 en Bloemfontein2 wat saam groepeer as eiesoortige bevolkings vergeleke met die res van die areas. Ook van belang is dat individue van die areas ’n unieke mitochondriale haplotipe besit, en in kombinasie met die kern resultate, mag dit die voorkoms van meer as een blootstellingsgeleentheid (en moontlik meer as een kolonie) in Suid Afrika aandui. Hierdie bevinding word verder beklemtoon deur die teenwoordigheid van unieke mikrosatelliet allele in die drie bevolkings. In ‘n poging om die oorsprong van die oorsprong-bevolking vir die blootstelling van Argentynse miere in Suid Afrika vas te stel, is mitochondriale sitokroom b volgordes gegenereer vir ’n substel miere wat die twee hoof genetiese klades in Suid Afrika voorstel. Vergelyking met gepubliseerde data van regoor die wêreld, insluitende die endemiese gebied van die Argentynse mier in Suid Amerika, het die Argentynse mier van Suid Afrika met drie potensiele oorsprong-bevolking verbind, naamlik Ocampo en Rosario in Argentina en Passo do Lontra in Brazil.

Thesis (MScAgric (Zoology))--University of Stellenbosch, 1996. / A number of studies on the general physico-chemical character of the Eerste River, Western Cape, had previously been done, but the problem of heavy metal pollution had, by 1993, not been addressed. A study was therefore undertaken from 1993-1995 in order to investigate these aspects. Since several researchers have shown that freshwater crabs accumulate certain heavy metals in their bodies and may therefore be used as monitors of environmental heavy metal pollution, the present study concentrated mainly on metal concentrations (Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd) in the local freshwater crab species, Potamonautes perlatus, and its possible use as biomonitor in the Eerste River. Two localities in the Eerste River were chosen,. in order to make comparisons, namely a relatively uncontaminated site in the Assegaaibosch Nature Reserve, Jonkershoek, and a visibly polluted site downstream from Stellenbosch, behind Stellenbosch Farmers' Winery (SFW). Crabs, water and sediment samples were collected seasonally at both localities, and metal concentrations thereof determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The results showed that the Eerste River down to the SFW locality is still relatively unpolluted in terms of heavy metals. It was, however, clear that runoff from the Stellenbosch municipal, industrial and agricultural areas do have an influence on other physico-chemical features of the river. The concentrations of heavy metals in whole crabs, tissues and carapace showed that Zn concentration was well regulated in P. perlatus from both localities, Mn and Cu were accumulated in individuals from SFW, and Pb and Cd accumulated in both populations. Compartmentalization of heavy metals was shown to occur in P. perlatus: the carapace was found to be the most important storage site for Mn, Zn and Pb, the carapace and gonads equally important for Cd storage, and the digestive gland the most important site for Cu storage. Whereas gender was shown, generally, to be of little importance in heavy metal uptake in P. perlatus, crab body size and seasonality were both shown to influence heavy metal uptake to some extent. However, only summer peaks in whole crab, carapace and tissue manganese concentrations were shown to correlate with peaks in environmental Mn concentrations. It was concluded that P. perlatus would possibly only be a Suitable monitor of environmental Mn, Pb and Cd pollution, although there is no guarantee that the crab body would accurately reflect environmental concentrations. It was also ascertained that, since a study of the sperm ultrastructure of P. perlatus showed a significantly larger number of abnormal spermatozoa in male crabs from ,SFW, and since these observed differences could possibly be related to heavy metal exposure, the sperm of this species might be a more reliable indicator of heavy metal pollution. It was finally concluded that more intensive research need to be undertaken on various aspects, especially the use of the spermatozoon as indicator of environmental heavy metal pollution, and that the results of the present study could serve as a basis for future studies.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 1982. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT:This study deals with the development of the ethmoidal region of Ascaphus truei Stejneger with special interest to the development of the nasal sacs, the diverticulum medium and the Jacobson's organ. This is to gather more information regarding the phylogeny of the structures. The opinions concerning the phylogenetical migration of the Jacobson's organ, are corroborated by the development of the organ in Ascaphus. The possible origin of the diverticulum medium from the nasal end of the nasolacrimal duct also is commented on. / No Afrikaans abstract available

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Understanding the responses of individual plant communities to variations in near-surface water levels and to water quality is a step towards determining the critical or important factors applicable to a Rapid Wetland Assessment System. This thesis describes and discusses factors associated with wetland plant communities, with an attempt to predict changes in a wetland system. This study was initiated with a primary aim of establishing the relationship between plant communities and the variation in near-surface water levels in areas occupied by various plant communities in the Middelvlei wetland system at Stellenbosch. A second aim was to assess whether water quality had an influence on the plant communities. Seven plant communities are identified and described from this particular wetland system using standard Braun-Blanquet techniques (Typha capensis Reedswamp; Cyperus textilis Sedgeland; Pennisetum macrourum Grassland; Juncus effusus Sedgeland; Cyperus longus Sedgeland; Cliffortia strobilifera Shrubland and Populus canescens Forest). The Typha capensis Reedswamp community is found in the wettest parts of the wetlands, with a fluctuation in water table from 0.10 m above surface during the wet season to 0.43 m below surface during the dry season. The Populus canescens Forest is actively invading the wetland replacing the wetland species by modifying the wetland hydrological condition. Water samples from 35 wells, collected on a monthly basis over 11 months, are used to assess sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, nitrate and phosphate, pH, redoxs potencial and dissolved oxygen levels in each community, over four seasons. Both multivariate analysis (ANOVA) and regression tree analysis (CART) are applied to evaluate differences between communities or groups of plant communities on a seasonal basis. Direct gradient analysis (CCA) is used to determine the relationship between plant communities and environmental variable gradients. A wide variation in water quality condition between plant communities is present. The Typha capensis Reedswamp community is associated with low nutrient levels (phosphates and nitrates) in all seasons. The Cyperus textilis Sedgeland is associated with low levels of nitrates and high phosphate levels. The Juncus effusus Sedgeland displays the highest phosphate concentration, occurring in summer, while low nitrate levels occur in this community during all the seasons. Dissolved oxygen in the near-surface water in this wetland is at very low concentrations, and has no significant difference between communities. It plays no major role in determining the occurrence and distribution of the plant communities. Most of the water chemical constituents measured in this study are the result of multiple complex relationships, with constituent variations occurring differently between communities. A remarkable seasonal distinction in the chemical constituents in different communities is present. Despite the complex nature of the relationships between plant communities and environmental factors, the low species diversity levels through the tendency for single species dominance and the strong association of these communities with particular environmental variables, the combination of these factors all add value to the use of wetland vegetation as a good tool to indicate wetland condition. An effort to understand wetland plant communities in relation to determining environmental factors would promote the use of plant communities as user-friendly tools for wetland monitoring and assessment. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Om die reaksies van plantgemeenskappe teenoor variasies in naby-oppervlakte watervlakke te verstaan, is die eerste krities-belangrike faktor die ontwikkeling van ‘n sisteem om vleilande vinnig te assesseer. Hierdie studie se basiese mikpunt is om verwantskappe te soek tussen plantgemeenskappe in die Middelvlei Vleilandsisteem en wisseling in naby-oppervlak watervlakke. ‘n Sekondêre doel is om te bepaal of daar enige korrelasie is tussen waterkwaliteit en die plantgemeenskappe teenwoordig in die vleiland. Sewe plantgemeenskappe is in hierdie vleilandsisteem geïdentifiseer en beskryf deur gebruik te maak van standaard Braun-Blanquet tegnieke, naamlik die Typha capensis Rietmoeras; Cyperus textilis Biesieveld; Pennisetum macrourum Grasveld; Juncus effusus Biesieveld; Cyperus longus Biesieveld; Cliffortia strobilifera Struikveld en ‘n Populus canescens Woud. Die Typha capensis Rietmoeras kom in die natste dele van die vleilande voor, met vrywater wisselling vanaf 0.10 m bo grondoppervlakte, tydens die nat-seisoen, tot 0.43 m onder grondoppervlakte tydens die droë seisoen. Die Populus canescens Woud het die grootste wisseling in watervlak vanaf die grondoppervlakte tot ten minste ‘n diepte van 1.0 m gehad. Dit blyk dat die Populus canescens Woud besig is om die vleigemeenskappe aktief binne te dring deur die vleiland uit te droog. Water is maandeliks, oor 11 maande, uit 35 geperforeerde plastiek pype, sogenaamde ‘putte’ onttrek, om natrium, magnesium, kalium, kalsium, nitrate en fosfate, pH, redokspotensiaal en opgeloste suurstof vlakke se seisoenale wisseling te bepaal. Beide veelvuldige analise (ANOVA) en regressie-analises (CART) is bereken om enige betekenisvolle verskille tussen plantgemeenskappe te bepaal. Direkte Gradiëntanalise (CCA) is gebruik om die verwantskap tussen plantgemeenskappe en gradiënte van omgewingsveranderlikes te bepaal. Groot variasies in waterkwaliteit tussen plantgemeenskappe is waargeneem. Die Typha capensis Rietmoeras-gemeenskap is geassosieer met lae voedingstofvlakke (veral van fosfate en nitrate) in alle seisoene. Die Cyperus textilis Biesieveld-gemeenskap is geassosieer met lae nitraat- en hoë fosfaatvlakke. Die Juncus effusus Biesieveldgemeenskap vertoon die hoogste fosfaatvlakke, tydens die die somermaande, terwyl die nitraatvlakke deur al die seisoene ook laag bly. Opgeloste suurstof in die naby-oppervlakte water in die vleilandsisteem het deurgaans ‘n lae konsentrasie vertoon met geen betekenisvolle verskille tussen gemeenskappe nie. Dit speel dus geen belangrike rol in die voorkoms of verspreiding van die plantgemeenskappe nie Die meeste van hierdie faktore, gemeet om die waterkwaliteit te bepaal, het veelvoudige, komplekse verhoudingsverskille, gebaseer veral op konsentrasieverskille, tussen die gemeenskappe. Ten spyte van die komplekse verwantskap tussen die plantgemeenskappe en omgewingsfaktore, is die spesierykheid laag en kom die neiging tot eensoortigedominansie algemeen in die vleiland-plantgemeenskappe voor. Die sterk assosiasie tussen die plantgemeenskappe en bepaalde omgewingsveranderlikes voeg aansienlike waarde daaraan toe om vleilandplantegroei te gebruik as indikator van vleilandtoestand. ‘n Poging om die verwantskappe tussen vleiland-plantgemeenskappe en omgewingsveranderlikes algemeen te bepaal, sal die gebruikersvriendelike nut van vleiland-plantgemeenskappe vir vleilandmonitering en assessering duidelik uitwys.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An understanding of the phylogeography and evolutionary processes involved in speciation is essential for the conservation and management of any particular species. To investigate the phylogeographic patterns in Agama atra from the Cape Fold Mountains (CFM), 98 individuals from 38 geographically close localities were analysed. In addition, to understand the phylogeographic associations between the CFM populations and the rest of Southern Africa, 18 specimens from 12 localities outside the CFM were also included. A total of 988 characters derived from two mitochondrial DNA fragments (control region and ND2) revealed 59 distinct haplotypes in the CFM. Parsimony, Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses revealed four distinct clades associated with geography within the CFM. These clades were supported by a haplotype network and were defined as the Cape Peninsula clade, the Limietberg clade, the northern CFM clade and the central CFM clade. Analysis of molecular variance confirmed the high degree of genetic structure within the CFM, with more than 75% of genetic variation found among the geographic areas. SAMOVA and nested clade analysis (NCA) suggest that the central CFM clade may be more diverse than detected by the networks and the phylogenetic analyses. The processes that caused the four distinct genetic groups in the CFM are not yet clear. Using a speculative molecular clock estimate, the main cladogenesis of A. atra within the CFM took place, approximately ~6.5 - 9 MYA. This dating coincides well with the documented Miocene-Pliocene climate fluctuations which might have contributed towards the isolation among lineages. The genetic structure found in A. atra is also markedly congruent with what has been found in other taxa such as Mesamphisopus spesies, Potamonautes brincki, and Pedioplanis burchelli and this would further support vicariance as a main isolating factor here. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: ‘n Goeie begrip van die filogeografie en die evolusionêre gebeurtenisse wat verband hou met spesiasie is belangrik vir die bewaring en bestuur van enige spesie. Om die filogeografiese patrone in Agama atra van die Kaapse Plooiberge (KPB) te ontleed, was 98 individue van 38 nabygeleë lokaliteite geanaliseer. Tesame met bogenoemde monsters was 18 individue van 12 lokaliteite van buite die KPB ook geanaliseer om die filogeografiese verwantskappe tussen die KPB bevolkings en die res van Suidelike Afrika te ondersoek. Uit ‘n totaal van 988 karakters verkry uit twee mitochondriale DNS fragmente (die kontrole gebied en ND2) is 59 haplotipes gevind. Parsimonie en modelgebaseerde filogenetiese analises dui daarop dat vier groepe geassosieer met geografie binne die KPB voorkom. Die groepe word geondersteun deur ‘n haplotipe netwerk en word soos volg gedefinieer: ‘n Kaapse Peninsula groep, ‘n Limietberg groep, ‘n noordelike KPB groep en ‘n sentrale KPB groep. Analises van molekulêre variansie (AMOVA) bevestig die hoë graad van genetiese struktuur binne die KPB, met meer as 75% genetiese variasie gevind tussen die geografiese areas. SAMOVA en gesetelde groep analises (“NCA”) stel voor dat die sentrale KPB groep dalk meer variasie vertoon as wat die netwerk en filogenetiese analises vertoon. Die prosesse wat die vier genetiese groepe tot stand gebring het is nog nie bekend nie. Volgens ‘n spekulatiewe molekulêre klok berekening het die hoof kladogenese van A. atra binne die KPB ongeveer ~6.5 - 9 miljoen jaar (MJ) gelede plaasgevind. Hierdie datering stem goed ooreen met die gedokumenteerde Mioseen-Plioseen klimaat veranderinge wat isolasie van die groepe kon bewerkstellig het. Die genetiese struktuur van A. atra in the KPB is ook gevind in ander taksa soos Mesamphisopus spesies, Potamonautes brincki, en Pedioplanis burchelli en bevestig dus dat vikariansie hier die hoof faktor vir isolasie is.

Thesis (MSc (Botany and Zoology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / The ability of various molluscan species to accumulate toxicants such as cadmium from natural waters in quantities that are many orders of magnitude higher than background levels are well-known. This phenomenon of bioaccumulation might cause certain stress responses in these organisms at the cellular level, which can be measured using biomarkers. A biomarker response test known as the neutral red retention assay was employed in this study to measure responses in four intertidal species. Specimens of Cymbula oculus (Born), Scutellastra longicosta (Lamarck), Cymbula granatina (Linnaeus) and Scutellastra granularis (Linnaeus) were collected at two localities on the coast of False Bay, South Africa. Laboratory exposures in static flow tanks at three different concentrations i.e. 0.8, 1 and 1.2 mg/L of CdCl2 were done respectively for each species over a three day exposure period i.e. each exposure concentration had an exposure period of 24, 48 and 72 hours. After every 24 hour exposure period the lysosomal membrane integrity was determined using the neutral red retention method to establish which species is the most sensitive to Cd. Both control and exposure groups for all species showed a decrease in retention times with an increase in Cd concentration over the exposure period. This decrease was particularly prominent at the highest exposure concentration after 72 hours. At 0.8 and 1.2 mg/L CdCl2 exposures an indirectly proportional relationship between neutral red retention time and heavy metal concentration was prominent in C. oculus, indicating a dose related response. In all species there was a moderate increase in heavy metal concentration over the 72 hour exposure period. EC50 values indicated that S. granularis and C. granatina had a “high” sensitivity to Cd contamination, while C. oculus had “medium” sensitivity and S. longicosta “low” sensitivity to Cd contamination. The sensitivity data obtained from the analysis of the experimental species in this study may contribute to the eventual establishment of a species sensitivity distribution model (SSD).

Thesis (PhD) -- Stellenbosch University, 1995. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Graling in the Kruger National Park. south of Phalaborwa Gate, is contaminated with copper, probably from a nearby copper refinery. Cattle in the neighbourhood have died from copper poisoning while the average copper concentration in the livers of impala in the Krgler National Park, was found to be abnormally high. The possibility exists that the ultrastructure of spermatozoa may serve as an indicator of environmental conditions. To examine this statement further, the purpose of this study includes the following: - To describe the ultrastructure of normal impala sperm as well as their abnormalities. - To quantify the sperm abnormalities of each experimental animal and to relate the abnormalities with the copper concentration in the impala liver, in order to determine whether any correlation exists between these two variables. Impala have been terminated monthly, from 1992.06.09 to 1993.05.15. in the vicinity of Phalaborwa Gate and in the Skukuza area for other research projects. Their sperm were made available for this study. The control group consisted of 20 animals which comprised 14 animals from an area, not contaminated with copper, along the Nwaswitshaka spruit near Skukula and 6 animals originally from the same area but which had been kept in captivity at Skukuza on a diet, not contaminated with copper. The experimental group consisted of 44 animals which comprised 32 animals from copper contaminated grazing along the Tshutshi spruit south of Phalaborwa Gate and 12 animals captured along the Nwaswitshaka spruit which were kept on a copper contaminated diet in captivity at Skukuza. Sperm from the epididymis of each animal were collected and fixed in a temporary laboratory. The sperm were processed at the Electron Microscopy Unit of the Faculty of Veterinary Science of the University of Pretoria and studied by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The copper concentration in the liver was analyzed and bone marrow collected of each animal in order to determine the condition of the animal. The external morphology of a normal impala sperm was documented by means of SEM and the dimensions of the sperm determined. SEM micrographs of observed sperm abnormalities were taken. Percentages for normal sperm and the percentages of some abnormalities of a control group (Average liver copper concentration - ALCC = 37.9 ppm WB) were calculated. The same percentages were also calculated for an experimental group (ALCC = 104 ppm WB). The control group and the experimental group exhibited 91.6% and 93.6% normal sperm respectively. The difference in percentage sperm abnormalities of the two groups was of the same order. The increased copper in the livers of the experimental group has thus not lead to an increase of the percentage macro-abnormalities observed with SEM. The ultrastructure of normal impala sperm were described and documented with micrographs by means of TEM. The deviations of the normal sperm ultrastructure were also recorded on micrographs. Percentages were calculated for the normal sperm sections, as well as the abnormalities of some sperm sections of a contrl group (ALCC = 33.86 ppm WB). The same percentages were also calculated for an experimental group (ALCC = 122.5 ppm WB). For the control group the average percentage sperm neck sections with vacuoles was : 31.5% and for the experimental group this percentage was : 57.9%. The increased copper concentrations in the livers of the experimental group thus led to an increase of the percentage of sperm necks with vacuoles. There is also reason to believe that the difference of the percentages of sections of the sperm head, in the control and experimental group, should be remarkably greater. A graphic analysis of the TEM-data has also shown that a statistically significant correlation exists between the percentage of sperm with vacuoles in the neck and the copper concentrations in the livers of impalas. The conclusion is that high level copper concentrations exert a detrimental effect on the ultrastructure of the sperm neck. The possibility also exists that copper concentrations in impala liver > 500 ppm WB. will show a correlation with the percentages of some of the other abnormalities observed. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die weiding suid van Phalaborwahek in die Krugerwildtuin word waarskynlik vanaf 'n nabygeleë kopersmeltery met koper besoedel. Van die plaasdiere in die omgewing het reeds van kopervergiftiging gevrek en die gemiddeIde koperkonsentrasie in die lewers van rooibokke is abnormaal hoog. Die moontlikheid bestaan dat die ultrastruktuur van spermatozoa as 'n indikator van omgewingstoestande kan dien. Om bogenoemde moontlikheid verder te ondersoek was die doelwit van hierdie studie die volgende: Om die ultrastruktuur van normaIe rooiboksperme en hulle abnormaliteite te beskryf en die spermabnormaliteite van elke proefdier te kwantifiseer en met die koperkonsentrasie in die lewer in verband te bring om sodoende te bepaal of daar 'n korrelasie tussen die twee veranderlikes bestaan. Rooibokke wat maandeliks vanaf 1992.06.09 tot 1993.05.15 vir ander navorsingsprojekte in die omgewing van Phalaborwahek en Skukuza getermineer is, se sperme is vir die studie beskikbaar gestel. Die kontrolegroep het bestaan uit 20 diere wat saamgestel is uit 14 diere afkomstig van die Nwaswitshakaspruit naby Skukuza, uit 'n gebied wat nie met koper besoedel is nie en 6 diere uit 'n groep wat oorspronklik uit dieselfde gebied gekom het, maar wat te Skukuza in aanhouding geleef het op voedsel wat nie met koper besoedel was nie. Die eksperimentele groep het bestaan uit 44 diere waarvan 32 in die omgewing van die Tshutshispruit suid van Phalaborwahek versamel is en die ander 12 diere is langs die Nwaswitshakaspruit gevang en op 'n koperbesoedelde dieet te Skukuza aangehou. Sperme uit die epididymis van elke dier is in 'n tydelike laboratorium versamel en gefikseer. By die Elektronmikroskopie Eenheid van die Fakutreit van Veeartsenykunde van die Universiteit van Pretoria is die sperme voorberei en met behulp van skandeerelektronmikroskopie (SEM) en transmissie-elektronmikroskopie (TEM) bestudeer. Die koperkonsentrasie in die lewer is bepaal en murgvet is versamel om die kondisie van die diere te bepaaI. Met SEM is die uitwendige morfologie van 'n normale rooiboksperm met mikrograwe gedokumenteer en die mates van die sperm bepaal. Mikrograwe van waargeneemde spermabnormaliteite is met SEM geneem. Persentasies is vir normale sperme en die abnormaliteite van sommige sperme van 'n kontrolegroep (Gemiddelde lewerkoperkonsentrasie - GLKK =37.9 dpm NB) bereken. Dieselfde persentasies is ook vir 'n eksperimentele groep (GLKK = 104 dpm NB) bereken. Van die kontrolegroep het 91.6% en van die eksperimentele groep 93.6% sperme normaal vertoon. Die verskil in persentasies spermafwykings van die twee groepe was ook van dieselfde orde. Die verhoogde koperkonsentrasie in die lewers van die eksperimentele groep het dus nie gelei tot 'n verhoging van die persentasie makro-abnormaliteite wat met SEM waargeneem is nie. Die ultrastruktuur van 'n normale rooiboksperm is met behulp van TEM beskryf en met mikrograwe gedokumenteer. Die afwykings van die spermultrastruktuur is ook op mikrograwe vasgelê. Persentasies is vir die normale spermsneë en die abnormaliteite van sommige spermsneë van 'n kontrolegroep (GLKK = 33.86 dpm NB) bereken. Dieselfde persentasies is ook vir 'n eksperimentele groep (GLKK = 122.5 dpm NB) bereken. Vir die kontrolegroep was die persentasie neksneë met vakuoles = 31.5% en vir die eksperimentele groep was die persentasie = 57.9%. Die verhoogde koperkonsentrasie in die lewer van die eksperimentele groep het dus gelei tot 'n verhoging van die persentasie neksneë met vakuoles. Rede bestaan om te glo dat die verskil van die persentasies kopsneë van die kontrole- en eksperimentele groep ook aansienlik hoër behoort te wees. 'n Grafiese analise van die TEM-data het ook getoon dat daar 'n statisties betekenisvolle korrelasie tussen die persentasie spermnekke met vakuoles en die koperkonsentrasie in die lewer van rooibokke bestaan. Die bevinding is dat hoë lewerkoperkonsentrasies 'n nadelige invloed op die ultrastruktuur van die spermnek uitoefen. Die moontlikheid bestaan ook dat koperkonsentrasies in die lewer > 500 dpm NB ook 'n korrelasie met sommige van die ander abnormaliteite sal toon.

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Increases in taxonomic sampling and the numbers and types of markers used in phylogenetic studies have resulted in a marked improvement in the interpretation of systematic relationships within Eutheria. However, relationships within several clades, including Paenungulata (Hyracoidea, Sirenia, Proboscidea), remain unresolved. Here the combination of i) a rapid radiation and ii) a deep divergence have resulted in limited phylogenetic signal available for analysis. Specifically i) a short internode separating successive branching events reduces the time available for changes to occur, while ii) the longer the time since divergence, the greater the opportunity for signal to be negatively affected by homoplasy. This is evident in both molecular and morphological data where an overall consensus on paenungulate relationships is lacking. Morphological analysis of anatomical and fossil evidence favours the association of Sirenia (S) and Proboscidea (P) (Tethytheria) to the exclusion of Hyracoidea (H); further, support for uniting these three taxa as Paenungulata is contentious. In contrast, molecular data provide strong support for Paenungulata but intra-ordinal relationships are ambiguous. Although results from mitochondrial DNA sequence data favour Tethytheria, there is no consensus of support for this clade from nuclear DNA. Nuclear DNA is typified by node instability but favours H+P in the largest concatenation of sequences. Due to the expected increased effect from homoplasy and consequently the increased likelihood for misleading signal, it is unclear which result is most likely to represent the “true” tree. An analysis of available and added intron sequences to characterise signal heterogeneity among nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA partitions indicated that the phylogenetic utility of partitions varies considerably. Subpartitioning of the data according to similar evolutionary processes/characteristics (e. g., mtDNA vs. nDNA and codon position) revealed new insights into the signal structure of the data set; specifically i) that nuclear DNA first codon positions, and to a lesser degree second codon sites, provide convincing support for H+P, and ii) that support for S+P by faster evolving sites within mtDNA suggests that this may be the result of misleading signal. If H+P represents the “true tree”, then support for this clade indicates that phylogenetic signal has been reduced over time as a result of multiple hits, which explains the presence of (hidden) support in slower evolving sites where homoplasy is less likely to occur, in contrast to faster evolving sites where no support for H+P was observed. In an attempt to provide further resolution from an alternative perspective to that possible with DNA sequence data, chromosomal rearrangements were identified among the three paenungulate lineages. Using comparative chromosome painting, unique changes within each order and specific to Paenungulata were characterised, however, intra-ordinal synapomorphies were not recovered. Although this may suggest a hard polytomy, the slow to moderate rate of evolution estimated from the data is likely not sufficient relative to the rapid radiation associated with the paenungulate node. Further examination of chromosomal rearrangements at a higher level of resolution may yet reveal informative changes. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: ‘n Toename in die aantal taksonomiese monsters sowel as die aantal en soort merkers wat in filogenetiese studies gebruik word, het tot ‘n merkbare verbetering in die vertolking van sistematiese verwantskappe binne die Eutheria gelei. Desondanks bly ‘n aantal klades (stamlyne), met inbegrip van Paenungulata (Hyracoidea, Sirenia, Proboscidea), steeds onopgelos. By laasgenoemde het die kombinasie van i) ‘n vinnige radiasie en ii) ‘n diep divergensie die filogenetiese sein wat vir analise beskikbaar is, beperk. Meer spesifiek sal i) opeenvolgende vertakkings wat deur kort internodusse geskei word die beskikbare tyd waartydens veranderings kan intree, verminder, terwyl ii) ‘n toename in tydsverloop sedert divergensie die kans dat die sein deur homoplasie nadelig beïnvloed sal word, vergroot. Dit word in sowel molekulêre en morfologiese data, waar ‘n oorhoofse konsensus t.o.v. verwantskappe van Paenungulata ontbreek, waargeneem. Morfologiese analise van anatomiese en fossielbewyse ondersteun die samevoeging van Sirenia (S) en Proboscidea (P) (Tethytheria) ten koste van Hyracoidea (H). Ondersteuning vir die samevoeging van dié drie taksa as Paenungulata is egter aanvegbaar. In teenstelling hiermee word Paenungulata sterk deur molekulêre data ondersteun, al bly die verwantstkappe op intra-orde vlak, steeds onduidelik. Alhoewel die resultate van mitochondriale DNA op Tethytheria dui, word die klade nie deur data van kern-DNA ondersteun nie. Kern-DNA word gekarakteriseer deur node instabiliteit maar verkies H+P in die grootste samevoeging van geen volgordes. Na aanleiding van die verwagte toename in die effek van homoplasie en die gevolglik groter kans op ‘n misleidende sein, is dit nie duidelik watter van die resultate die meer korrekte filogenetiese stamboom verteenwoordig nie. Analise van beskikbare en nuut toegevoegde intron-volgordes om sein-heterogeniteit tussen kern- en mitochondriale DNA verdelings te karakteriseer, toon dat die filogenetiese nut van verdelings beduidend verskil. Onderverdeling van die data op grond van soortgelyke evolusionêre prosesse/karaktereienskappe (bv. mtDNA vs. nDNA, en kodonposisie) het na nuwe insigte in die seinstruktuur van die datastel gelei. Meer spesifiek dat i) kern-DNA se eerste kodonposisies, en tot ‘n mindere mate die tweede kodonposisies, H+P oortuigend ondersteun en ii) dat ondersteuning vir S+P deur posisies binne mtDNA wat vinnig verander, op ‘n misleidende sein mag dui. As H+P die korrekte stamboom verteenwoordig dui ondersteuning vir die klade op ‘n filogenetiese sein wat met verloop van tyd as gevolg van veelvuldige seinvoorkomste verklein het. Dit verklaar die aanwesigheid van versluierde ondersteuning in stadig-veranderende posisies waar die neiging tot homoplasie klein is, in teenstelling met posisies wat vinniger verander en waar ondersteuning vir H+P nie waargeneem is nie. Op soek na verhoogde resolusie vanuit ‘n ander perspektief as DNA-volgordebepaling, is chromosomale herrangskikkings in die drie stamlyne van Paenungulata nagevors. Met behulp van vergelykende chromosoomkleuring is unieke veranderings binne elke orde en spesifiek binne Paenungulata gekarakteriseer, maar geen sinapomorfe kenmerke is op die intra-orde vlak gevind nie. Alhoewel dit op ‘n onopgeloste politomie mag dui, is die stadige tot matige evolusietempo wat van die data afgelei word, relatief tot die vinnige radiasie wat met die Paenungulata-nodus geassosieer word, waarskynlik onvoldoende vir ‘n oplossing. Verdere navorsing oor chromosomale herrangskikkings met ‘n hoër resolusievlak mag addisionele insiggewende veranderings aantoon.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2005. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Evidence for widespread ecological impacts due to rapid climate change is on the increase, with further warming predicted over the next century. This increase in warming has lead to organisms adjusting their distribution range and where this is not possible organisms must cope with the stressful environments in a different way. One potential way to handle environmental stress is via a mechanism known as phenotypic plasticity, which allows an organism to express different phenotypes depending on the biotic or abiotic environment in a way that may alter that organism's fitness. Acclimation temperatures can potentially cause plastic (reversible and irreversible) changes in the response of individuals to stressful experimental conditions that could increase their survival. The issue of whether this acclimation will be beneficial to the organism or not remains contentious, with support offered both for and against the idea of beneficial acclimation. The aims of the investigation were to determine the thermal limits of five ameronothrid mite species (Halozetes marinus, H marionensis, H belgicae, H. fulvus and Podacarus auberti) from varying terrestrial habitats and to test whether there is beneficial acclimation on the thermal traits. Along with the beneficial acclimation hypothesis several alternative hypotheses were also tested. In addition, locomotor performance was determined as it has been suggested that locomotion performance is a reliable and practical measure of potential fitness of animals. The same hypotheses testing the effects of acclimation temperature on the thermal limits were tested on three performance traits; performance breadth, optimum speed and optimum temperature. Support for beneficial acclimation was found in the performance breadth and optimum speed traits for all species except for Halozetes marinus. For the optimum temperature trait the prediction for the compensation hypothesis was met and that of the beneficial acclimation hypothesis rejected, with the only exception again being that of H marinus. In the case of the locomotor performance traits the prediction for the beneficial acclimation hypothesis in the performance breadth and optimum speed traits are the same for that of the compensation hypothesis, therefore the overall response of the more terrestrial mite species is one of compensation. However, support for beneficial acclimation was not found in the thermal limit traits of all five species, with the higher acclimation temperatures (specifically 150 C) resulting in negative responses in LLT in H. marinus and H. belgicae, and in ULT in H. fulvus. Phenotypic flexibility varied between marine and terrestrial species. The less variable marine environment showed lower flexibility than that of terrestrial species in the performance breadth trait and optimum temperature trait, but there was a lack of variation between the marine and terrestrial species in the temperature tolerance traits. These results show that the effects of acclimation on various traits, especially fitness related traits, are complex and require more attention if the consequences are to be fully explained. This study therefore provides insight into the effects of acclimation on performance traits and thermal limit traits and has implications for the evolution of plastic responses in terrestrial arthropods. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Bewys vir wye ekologiese impakte as gevolg van vinnige klimaatsverandering is aan die toeneem, met verdere verwarming wat voorspel word gedurende die volgende eeu. Dié toename in verwarming het alreeds veroorsaak dat organismes hulle verspreidings verander, of waar dit nie moontlik is nie, moet hulle stresvolle omgewingstoestande op 'n ander wyse hanteer. Een moontlike manier om omgewingsstres te hanteer is deur gebruik te maak van 'n meganisme wat bekend staan as fenotipiese plastisiteit, wat dit vir 'n organisme moontlik maak om ander fenotipes te toon afhangende van die biotiese of abiotiese omgewing in 'n wyse wat die organisme se fiksheid beinvloed. Temperatuur akklimasie kan moontlik plastisiteit (omkeerbaar of onomkeerbaar) veranderinge in die reaksie van individue tot stresvolle eksperimentele toestande tot gevolg hé, wat gevolglik hulle oorlewing kan verhoog. Die kwessie of hierdie akklimasie wel voordelig vir die organisme is of nie is steeds betwisbaar, met beide steun vir en teen die idee van voordelige akklimasie. Die doel van hierdie ondersoek was om vas te stel wat die termiese limiete van vyf ameronothrid myt spesies (Halozetes marinus, H marionensis, H belgicae, H fulvus en Podacarus auberti) van verskeie terrestriële habitatte is, en om te toets of daar voordelige akklimasie in die termiese eienskappe voorkom. Tesame met die voordelige akklimasie hipotese is daar verskeie alternatiewe hipoteses ook getoets. Verder, is bewegings prestasie vasgestelomdat dit al voorgestel is dat bewegings prestasie 'n betroubare en praktiese mate van die potensiële fiksheid van 'n dier aantoon. Dieselfde hipotese wat die effek van akklimasie temperatuur op die termiese limiete toets, is op drie prestasie eienskappe getoets; prestasie wydte, optimale spoed en optimale temperatuur. Bewyse vir voordelige akklimasie is gevind in die prestasie wydte en optimale spoed eienskappe vir alle spesies behalwe Halozetes marinus. Vir die optimale temperatuur eienskap was die voorspelling vir die kompensasie hipotese korrek maar dié van die voordelige akklimasie verkeerd, met H. marin us die enigste uitsondering. In die geval van die bewegings prestasie eienskappe is die voorspelling vir die voordelige akklimasie hipotese in die prestasie wydte en optimale spoed eienskappe die selfde as vir die kompensasie hipotese. Daarom is die algemene reaksie vir die meer terrestriële spesies een van kompensasie. Bewyse vir voordelige akklimasie is egter nie gevind in die termiese limiet eienskappe van die vyf spesies nie, met die hoér akklimasie temperature (spesifiek 15° C) wat 'n negatiewe reaksie in LLT in H. marin us en H. belgicae, en in UL T in H. fulvus veroorsaak het. Fenotipiese buigsaamheid het verskil tussen mariene en terrestriële spesies. Die minder variërende mariene omgewing het 'n laer buigsaamheid in die prestasie wydte en optimale temperatuur eienskappe getoon as die van terrestriële spesies, maar daar was geen variasie tussen mariene en terrestriële spesies in die temperatuur toleransie eienskappe nie. Die resultate wat hier voorgelê word wys dat die gevolge van akklimasie op verskeie eienskappe, veral fiksheids verwante eienskappe, ingewikkeld is en vereis meer aandag om die gevolge volledig te verduidelik. Hierdie studie verskaf dus insig in die gevolge van akklimasie vir prestasie eienskappe en termiese limiet eienskappe en het gevolge vir die evolusie van plastiese reaksies in terrestriële arthropoda.

Thesis (PhD) -- Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT:Heavy metals are persistent environmental contaminants whose sources of inputs into the environment are both natural and anthropogenic. The levels of heavy metals (cadmium, copper, nickel, lead and zinc) in the False Bay intertidal zone were measured in the water, sediments and invertebrate species between August 2000 and August 2001. The results of the water and sediment analyses revealed that most pollution was associated with the northern shore of the bay between Strand and Muizenberg, where the most populated and industrial catchments occur. Significant spatial variations occurred, indicating the presence of localised contamination, while seasonal variations may be related to changes in precipitation and runoff at different times of the year. The concentrations of cadmium, nickel and lead were occasionally higher than the levels recommended by the South African Water Quality Standards. The possible sources of pollution at the different sites are also discussed. The concentrations of the five metals in the different invertebrate species (Oxystele tigrina, 0. sinensis, Choromytilus meridionalis, Patella oculus, Patiriella exigua and Tetraclita serrata) also revealed significant seasonal and spatial variations, with both the soft tissues and shells accumulating heavy metals. The barnacle T serrata from Rooiels had the highest cadmium concentration (70.67 J.lg/g dry weight), which may be related to historic pollution inputs from the military activities which took place at a weapons testing site at this site between 1987 and 1994, although no evidence was found to confirm this. The periwinkle 0. tigrina from Strand had the highest copper concentration (70.25 J.lg/g) while the limpet P. oculus from the same site had the highest nickel concentration (35.75 J.lg/g). The shells of the mussel C. meridionalis from Muizenberg had the highest concentration of lead (25.75 J.lg/g). Since cadmium occurs as a constituent of phosphate fertilisers used widely in the False Bay catchments, the effects of cadmium exposure on the different species were investigated during 14-day laboratory exposures to 200 and 400 J.lg/LCdCh. The results revealed a general pattern of tissue metal increase in the exposed organisms, followed by slight reductions after decontamination in clean seawater. The viscera and kidneys of C. meridionalis accumulated most of the dissolved cadmium. The shells of the mussels also accumulated cadmium, indicating the possible use of shells as a detoxification matrix. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING:Swaarmetale is persisterende omgewingskontaminante waarvan die insetbronne beide natuurlik of van menslike oorsprong kan wees. Die kontaminasievlakke van swaarmetale (kadmium, koper, nikkel, lood en sink) in die Valsbaai tussengetysone is in die water, sedimente en invertebraatspesies bepaal vanaf Augustus 2000 tot Augustus 2001. Voorlopige resultate van die water- en sedimentontledings het getoon dat die meeste besoedeling by die noordelikke oewer van die baai voorgekom het tussen Strand and Muizenberg, waar die mees digbewoonde en ge-industrialiseerde opvangsgebiede is. Betekenisvolle ruimtelike en seisoenale variasie het in die konsentrasies van swaarmetale voorgekom, met die ruimtelike variasie wat moontlik gelokaliseerde kontaminasie aandui terwyl die seisoenale variasies weer verband mag hou met veranderings in die neerslag en afloop gedurende verskillende tye van die jaar. Die konsentrasie van kadmium, nikkel en lood was somtyds hoer as die vlakke wat deur die Suid-Afrikaanse Waterkwaliteitsstandaarde voorgestel word. Die moontlike bronne van besoedeling in die verskillende areas is ook in bespreking genoem. Die konsentrasies van die vyf swaametale in die verskillende invertebraatspesies (Oxystele tigrina, 0. sinensis, Choromytilus meridionalis, Patella oculus, Patiriella exigua and Tetraclita serrata) het ook seisoenale en ruimtelike variasies vertoon, die swaarmetale het in die sagte weefsel en skulpe van die invertebrate geakkumuleer. Die hoogste gemiddelde konsentrasie van kadmium (70.67 ).lg/g droe massa) is in die heel-liggaam monsters van die eendemossel T serrata gemeet wat by Rooiels versamel is. Die vlakke mag verband hou met die oprigting en aktiwiteite van die wapentoetsingsaanleg in die opvanggebied van die Rooiels lokaliteit tussen 1987 en 1994, maar geen bewyse daarvan is gevind nie. Die tolletjie, 0. tigrina wat in die 10kaliteit by Strand versamel is het die hoogste gemiddelde konsentrasie koper gehad 70.25 pig droe massa), terwyl die klipmossel P. oculus by dieselfde versamelpunt die hoogste konsentrasie nikkel (35.75 ).lg/gdroe massa) gehad het. Eksperimentele studies is ook uitgevoer op vier invertebraat spesies wat vir 14 dae in akwaria blootgestel is aan see-water met 200 en 400 p,g/L CdCh, en daama gedekontamineer is in skoon seewater. / The NRF and the University of Stellenbosch, for funding this study.