Environmental pressures such as natural disasters, resource scarcity, and conflict related to climate change have emphasized the importance of considering social justice within its ecological context. Gender inequality is one type of injustice that has traditionally been addressed as a social matter, yet gendered divisions in bargaining power, mobility, and access to resources are exacerbated by environmental instability. One barrier to gender equity in the face of a changing climate is the mainstream economic paradigm, which promotes growth and individualism, often at the cost of environmental and social wellbeing. The issue of gender inequality in the Anthropocene, the proposed geological epoch highlighting human impact of earth systems, is explored here in three parts. The first section identifies opportunities for feminist and ecological economics to assimilate notions of justice in mainstream economic thought. The second considers dynamics of gender equality through an econometric analysis of macroeconomic effects of traditionally female-dominated unpaid care work. Finally, the third part investigates national progress toward the maternal mortality reduction target set in the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals and proposes a gendered perspective for the newly implemented Sustainable Development Goals. The dissertation concludes with a discussion of policy implications for national and international development institutions as they seek to improve gender equity in diverse social and ecological contexts.

The use of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as the primary measure of economic progress has arguably led to unintended consequences of environmental degradation and socially skewed outcomes. The Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) was designed to reveal the trade offs associated with conventional economic growth and to assess the broader impact of economic benefits and costs on sustainable human welfare. Although originally designed for use at the national scale, an interest has developed in the United States in a state-level uptake of the GPI to inform and guide policy. However, questions exist about the quality and legitimacy of the GPI as a composite indicator. These questions include concerns about the underlying assumptions, the monetary weights and variables used, statistical rigor, magnitude of data collection required, and lack of a transparent governance mechanism for the metric. This study aims to address these issues and explore the GPI through a design-thinking lens as both a design artifact and intervention. The leading paper in this dissertation offers the first GPI accounting for all 50 U.S. states. State GPI results are introduced and compared to Gross State Product (GSP). Then an analysis of the components to GPI reveals which drive the differences in outcomes, including examining the sustainability aspects of the state-level results. The second paper investigates the quality of the GPI as a composite indicator by testing its sensitivity to numerical assumptions and relative magnitudes of components, with particular attention to the possible unintended policy consequences of the design. The third paper seeks to answer the question of both efficiency (data parsimony) and effectiveness (comparatively to other indicators) by analysis of correlations between GPI components and with other state-level indicators such as the Gallup Well-Being Indicator, Ecological Footprint, and UN Human Development Index. To garner insight about possible GPI improvements, goals, and governance gaps in the informal U.S GPI network, the final paper dives into processes, outputs, and outcomes from the community of practice as revealed through a facilitated U.S. GPI workshop.

The proposal has been put forward that ecological economics seek to become substantive economics (Gerber and Scheidel 2018). This raises important issues about the content and direction of ecological economics. The division of economics into either substantive or formal derives from the work of Karl Polanyi. In developing his ideas Polanyi employed a definition from Menger and combined this with Tönnies theory of historical evolution. In this paper I explore why the resulting substantive vs. formal dichotomy is problematic. In particular the article exposes the way in which trying to impose this dichotomy on history of economic thought and epistemology leads to further false dichotomies. Besides Polanyi, the positions of other important thinkers informing social ecological economics (SEE) are discussed including Neurath, Kapp and Georgescu-Roegen. The aim is to clarify the future direction of ecological economics and the role, in that future, of ideas raised under the topic of substantive economics. / Series: SRE - Discussion Papers

Introdução - É fundamental conhecer a visão de Georgescu sobre o que hoje se chama \"desenvolvimento sustentável\". Um economista que contribuiu muito para o mainstream durante grande parte de sua vida, e acabou propondo, a partir dos anos 1970, uma nova visão de sistema econômico, centrada na Termodinâmica. É visto como um dos seus principais inspiradores, senão o principal, pela corrente da \"Economia Ecológica\", que tem como propósito analisar o funcionamento do sistema econômico tendo em vista as condições do mundo biofísico sobre o qual este se realiza. Se ele antecipou questões que hoje preocupam a sociedade, no que diz respeito à sustentabilidade ambiental do desenvolvimento, por que suas idéias científicas não foram levadas a sério? Objetivo - A pesquisa tem por objeto resgatar as idéias de Georgescu, um pensador revolucionário, cuja obra é fonte valiosa para entender relações entre sociedade e meio ambiente. Fonte bibliográfica - O estudo se baseou na obra de Georgescu, nos autores que representam a visão por ele criticada, em artigos de economistas ecológicos, e em publicações de Agências internacionais relacionadas principalmente aos temas energia e aquecimento global. Aspectos Abordados - Abordou-se as rupturas de Georgescu com o pensamento econômico convencional, o debate sobre crescimento versus escassez, e os elementos que fazem dele um precursor da Economia Ecológica. Avaliou-se como seu pensamento ilumina o debate sobre o desenvolvimento sustentável, com ênfase na discussão sobre a transição energética. Conclusão - Tudo indica que a visão de Georgescu sobre o processo econômico representa a primeira revolução científica na Economia, por ter saído do paradigma que delimita as fronteiras do processo econômico onde a circulação de mercadorias pode ser observada. Suas idéias mais incômodas, como a de que um dia o desenvolvimento deverá ser compatível com o decréscimo do produto, contribuíram para o anátema. Nesse começo de século XXI, contudo, elas encontram um ambiente muito mais propício à aceitação, seja pela importância que tem sido atribuída às questões ambientais globais, seja pela percepção de que fenômenos complexos não podem ser entendidos com arcabouço científico reducionista, mecânico e estático. O processo de reabilitação do pensamento científico de Georgescu tem ocorrido principalmente na Economia Ecológica e na Economia \"fora-do-equilíbrio\". / Introduction - It is crucial to know Georgescu\'s view about what is now called \"Sustainable Development\". An economist that made many contributions to mainstream economics during most part of his life, and proposed in the 1970\'s a new view of the economic process, based in Thermodynamics. He is seen as one of the main precursors of Ecological Economics, if not the most important one. Ecological Economics studies the economic system regarding the biophysical conditions of it\'s interactions with the environment. If he really anticipated important questions about the environmental sustainability of the development process, why weren\'t his scientific ideas taken seriously? Scope - This research has the purpose to rescue Georgescu\'s ideas, a revolutionary thinker whose contribution is highly valuable to the understanding of society-nature relationships. Bibliography - This work was based in Georgescu\'s books and papers, in the works of authors who were criticized by him. It was also based in the reading of ecological economists\' papers, and in publications of international agencies, especially those related to energy and global warming. Aspects - The research approached Georgescu\'s revolution with respect to conventional economic reasoning, the growth versus scarcity debate, and the elements that make him a precursor of ecological economics. It was also assessed how his thoughts may illuminate the sustainable development debate, with special emphasis on the energy transition discussion. Conclusion - It seems that his vision about the economic process represents the first scientific revolution in Economics, because he rejected the paradigm that limits the frontiers of the economic process where commodity circulation can be observed. His most inconvenient ideas, like that of development being compatible with \'degrowth\' of the product in the long term future also contributed to his excision. In the beginning of the 21st century, however, they find a more propitious environment, be it because of the importance attributed to global environmental issues, be it because of the perception that complex phenomena cannot be understood with a reductionist, mechanic and static scientific framework. The rehabilitation process of his scientific work has happened especially in Ecological Economics and in the \'out-of-equilibrium\' economics.

Esta pesquisa apresenta a construção de um modelo conceitual para a sustentabilidade do Rio Pinheiros na capital de São Paulo através da aplicação de um método de mapeamento e análise de variáveis em sistemas sócio-ecológicos. O método se baseia na Teoria Geral dos Sistemas e na Stakeholder Analysis e visa identificar variáveis relevantes por meio de uma abordagem hierárquica e transdisciplinar. Nesse sentido, especialistas de diversas áreas do conhecimento foram consultados para que as variáveis fossem identificadas e, ainda, a elas se atribuíssem níveis de importância. Além disso, uma matriz de adjacência foi elaborada a fim de identificar as conexões entre as variáveis. Duas hipóteses foram testadas. A primeira - referente à distribuição não aleatória dos pontos de importância atribuídos pelos diversos especialistas - foi corroborada. A segunda - que postulava a sobreposição das variáveis mais importantes e mais conectadas em um conjunto formado pelos quartis dos valores mais altos de importância e conectância - foi refutada. A verificação da primeira hipótese foi feita com o teste não paramétrico do sinal e distribuições binomiais. A verificação da segunda hipótese se deu com o cálculo da porcentagem de maioria simples. A partir dos resultados obtidos, construiu-se o modelo conceitual da sustentabilidade do Rio Pinheiros com a ajuda de um software de modelagem de redes complexas e hierárquicas. / This research presents the construction of a conceptual model for the sustainability of the Pinheiros River in São Paulo City through the application of a method of mapping and analysis of variables in socio-ecological systems. The method is based both on the General Theory of Systems and on the Stakeholder Analysis and aims at the identification of relevant variables through a hierarchical and transdisciplinary approach. In this sense, specialists from different fields of expertise were consulted in order to identify the variables and to assign them importance levels. An adjacency matrix was developed so that connections amidst the variables could be identified. Two hypotheses were tested. The first - concerning the nonfortuitous distribution of the importance points assigned by the several specialists - was corroborated. The second - which postulated the superposition of the more important and more connected variables in a group formed by the quartile of the more important variables - was refuted. The first hypothesis was verified with the support of the non-parametric signal and binomial distribution test. The second hypothesis was verified through the simple majority calculation. Based on the results and with the help of a software able to model hierarchical and complex networks, a conceptual model of sustainability for the Pinheiros River was built.

At the Rio Conference in 1992, the sustainable development agenda promised a new era for natural resource management, where the wellbeing of human society would be enhanced through a more sustainable use of natural resources. Several decades on, economic growth continues unabated at the expense of natural capital – as evidenced by natural resource depletion, biodiversity loss, climate change and further environmental issues. Why is this happening and what can be done about it? This research examines what socio-economic and governance factors affect sustainability in complex coupled social-ecological systems. Furthermore, it analyses the role of power relations and imbalances between economic and conservation forces with regard to sustainable development. The original contribution to knowledge of this thesis is based on one conceptual and two empirical (Agent-Based) models. These explore, through several case-studies, the potential of different future scenarios in fostering synergies and win-win contexts of ecosystem services and socio-economic indicators. Overall, the research showed the complex and interconnected relationship between the economy and natural systems, and between economic and conservation forces, in coupled social-ecological systems. Addressing complex sustainability issues requires the use of integrative, holistic and interdisciplinary approaches, in addition to considering the particular socio-economic, cultural, political and environmental contexts of the social-ecological system being analysed. The models demonstrated that the current economic system requires an ever-increasing use of natural resources, and that the economy does not protect the natural capital on which it depends. This is based on a disjunction of the economic and conservation elements upon which the sustainable development paradigm is founded. Furthermore, several socio-economic and governance factors appeared to be key for diminishing sustainability in coupled social-ecological systems; namely, the type of economic and production systems, the particular use of monetary debt, technological development, and weak conservation forces (both top-down and bottom-up). However, results also showed alternative scenarios where these same factors could be redirected to enhance social-ecological sustainability. This dual role supports the argument that the current economic system is not inherently (i.e. by definition, per se) unsustainable. Rather, the specific use of economic mechanisms and behaviour of economic entities, as well as their decisions and relationships with the environment, show a tendency to increase unsustainability. Hence, short- and medium-term sustainability can be enhanced by developing mechanisms that start shifting capitalist forces to support environmental conservation; here, the role of Payments for Ecosystem Services will be essential. Enhancing long-term sustainability, however, may require a further paradigm change – where economic and production systems integrate, and fully account for, externalities and the value of natural capital, thus human society is embedded within the wider, and more important, natural environmental system.

Globalization, specialization, and intensification have transformed the global food system, generating material flows and impacts that span multiple scales and levels, presenting novel governance challenges. Many argue for a transition toward a sustainable food system, although the scope and specific goals are fiercely contested. Theory and method is needed to evaluate competing normative claims and build legitimacy. In this dissertation Vermont serves as a case study to investigate how environmental and economic flows impact regional governance, focusing on efforts to manage agricultural phosphorus to achieve water quality goals. A material flow account is developed to estimate phosphorus flows embedded in commodities flowing in and out of Vermont’s agricultural system from 1925-2012. The results indicate a net imbalance of phosphorus flows for the entire period, leading to the accumulation of legacy phosphorus in soils that constitutes a long-term threat to water quality. Agricultural intensification and land cover change during this period led to increased phosphorus use efficiency, livestock density, and dependency on imported feed, the largest source of phosphorus entering Vermont since the 1980s. The evidence of persistent imbalance calls into question the effectiveness of current nonpoint source pollution policy. A critical investigation of nutrient management planning policy reveals several shortcomings: pasture is frequently excluded; many phosphorus flows that cross the farm-gate are not captured; critical information on soil phosphorus levels and runoff risk is not collected in a manner that facilitates regional governance. The integration of nutrient management plans and mass-balances is proposed as an alternative approach that can increase accountability, encourage efficiency, and facilitate management and governance, albeit within constraints imposed by Vermont’s position in a globalized market for agricultural commodities. The empirical and policy analysis is complemented by a theoretical investigation that starts from the observation that a sustainability transition inevitably entails tradeoffs amongst competing normative goals. Navigating these tradeoffs is complicated by mismatch between the reach of governance institutions and the spatial and temporal dimensions of the challenges they face. This investigation contributes to understanding how legitimacy and consensus are constructed in the context of competing normative claims and multi-level governance. It considers deliberative democracy as a means for evaluating normative claims and arriving at a shared, legitimate basis for social action. An instrumental perspective on deliberation is contrasted with a deeper notion that sees deliberation as constitutive of sustainability at a local-to-global level. A conclusion grounds this analysis by drawing out the ways in which deliberation can inform Vermont’s efforts to govern its agriculture, water quality, and economic development, sowing the seeds for a sustainability transition.

This thesis examines the relationship between the underlying ecological values of wetlands and the economic values they produce. The importance of the roles that wetlands play is now well recognised yet losses continue at a global level. It is argued that one cause of wetland loss is a lack of awareness of the values of these systems due to inadequate information of the nexus between ecological functions and economic values. For example, the off-site, indirect benefits provided by wetlands have largely been ignored. This has led to an undervaluation of these ecosystems. The integration of ecological and economic values requires incorporating differing types of information and systems of value derived from differing disciplines with differing paradigms. To understand the differing disciplinary perspectives the thesis explores the ecological functions of wetlands and the economic goods and services that they provide. The functions and benefits of wetlands are linked at the ecological-economic interface. A consensus on the definition of ecological value could not be discerned within the discipline of ecology. Thus, a definition and index of ecological value is developed to demonstrate the attributes of coastal and wetland systems that provide for instrumental human benefits. These attributes include productivity, the ability to provide habitats for dependent species and the diversity of species and organisation they support. However, ecological information is not presently available to operationalise the index. The ability of economic techniques to capture this ecological value is then investigated. Three approaches for assessing non-market values (direct linkage models, revealed preference and stated preference models) are reviewed with respect to their ability to capture ecological value. An alternative biophysical approach, namely energy analysis, is also considered. The review suggests that it may be possible to measure ecological value using the contingent valuation method. The role of information in preference formation and willingness to pay bids is then investigated along with a number of other issues that need to be resolved before using the contingent valuation method. The wetlands of the case study area, Moreton Bay, Australia exhibit both ecological and economic values. The wetlands contribute approximately one-third of primary productivity in the Bay, provide habitat for a wide range of dependent species (including internationally recognised migratory wader birds) and have a diverse fauna with a relatively large number of endemic species. Economic values of the wetlands include both direct and indirect use values (for example, fishing, recreation, water quality improvements and storm buffering) and non-use values. Non-use values include the value in preserving the environment for future generations (bequest value) and the existence of vulnerable animals such as turtles and dugongs, which one may never expect to see. If consumers are willing to pay to preserve these animals, this is also a valid economic value. The economic technique of contingent valuation is tested to determine if it is possible to capture ecological value by providing respondents, selected by random sample, to a survey with the relevant information. A case study is undertaken in Moreton Bay to determine respondents' willingness to pay to improve water quality and hence protect the wetlands. To test the effects of differing types information, four different versions of the survey were sent to four groups of 500 respondents. Case A provided no extra information so it could be used as a control. Case B included information about the ecological values of the wetlands of Moreton Bay. Case C provided information about the economic use values of the wetlands in the Bay including direct and indirect use. Case D provided information about the non-use values of endangered species resident in the Bay that are dependent on the wetlands. The results indicate that the provision of different types of information influences willingness to pay. However, willingness to pay when provided with ecological information is not significantly different from willingness to pay when provided with other information. As it was not possible from the research undertaken to state that the contingent valuation method can capture ecological value, an alternative approach is proposed to link ecological and economic values. It is argued that ecologists and economists need to develop common aims and scales of assessment. Further, communication between the two disciplines can be enhanced through the use of agreed indicator terms. Through an iterative approach it should then be possible to understand the linkages between changes in indicators of ecosystem values and indicators of economic value.

<p>Abstract</p><p>In order to address sustainable policies, communities need indicators that can tell them something about the larger social and ecological system, and the relationships between the two. This study attempts to apply an existing indicator of welfare and sustainability, the Genuine Progress Index (GPI), to the regional level in Sweden. The county of Östergötland is used as a case study and the thesis is written in collaboration with Regionförbundet Östsam. The aim of the study is to develop an application of GPI methodology to circumstances of data availability at the regional Swedish level. Developed methodology used to calculate a GPI of Östergötland in 2000-2006. GPI results are put in a context of the Regional Development Program of Östergötland in order to address policy implications regarding the very meaning of growth, development, welfare and sustainability. The results indicate that GPI has increased during the time period. However, a comparison with the Gross Regional Product (GRP) shows that GRP has increased faster than GPI. It is concluded that this could be a possible trend of decreased economic efficiency, where more economic output is not sustainable in the sense that an equivalent amount of welfare is not produced. This effect is mainly an effect of increasing income inequality. It is also suggested that the Regional Development Program should distinguish growth and development as different concepts. In doing so, more sustainable policies can be adopted in the future.</p>

Freshwater ecosystems are some of the most threatened on the planet. Efforts to conserve, restore, or otherwise manage large rivers and the services they provide are hindered by limited understanding of the functional dynamics of these systems. This shortcoming is especially evident with regard to trophic structure and energy flow. In this study I use natural abundances of carbon and nitrogen isotopes to examine patterns of energy flow and food-chain length of large-river food webs characterized by different landscape-scale hydrologic features. Ten locations along an approximately 500 km stretch of the Upper Paraná River Basin, Brazil, provided the setting for this work. Carbon derived from C3 plants and phytoplankton were the dominant energy sources across all webs, but relative contributions differed among landscape types (low-gradient river, high-gradient river, river stretches downstream of reservoirs, and reservoirs). Increases in food chain length corresponded with higher relative importance of phytoplankton derived carbon, likely due to size-structured effects of the phytoplankton-zooplankton-secondary consumer trophic link. River impoundment corresponded with decreased ecological and economic efficiency of fisheries production, an important ecosystem service provided by many tropical rivers.