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This is a study concerning the social history of paediatric nursing between 1920 and 1970. Oral history data was collected from past nurses of children and from people who had been in hospital as children within the period in question. The study explores the professional orientation of nurses and their role within the micro-culture of the acute hospital, their relationship with doctors on the one hand and with the child and family on the other. It is found that until the later years of the period 1920-1970, paediatric nursing was a regimented discipline, whose professional identity was intimately associated with that of medicine and with notions of 'science' and 'professionalism'. In practice, 'science' meant practicing the 'known way' as described in the literature of the time and which had been passed down by word of mouth and which could not be exposed to critique or review. 'Professionalism' meant being respectful and obedient to senior nurses and to doctors. This created a situation where nursing could not initiate change and as a result, failed to provide social and psychological care appropriate to the child and family. Nursing failed to question and develop its own practice and what changes did take place were the result of other agencies' manipulation of nursing for their own ends. The nurse participants express a strong sense of value for their work history and are proud of what they achieved. Nursing is seen as a demanding and challenging occupation, to which the system of discipline and hierarchy presented most of the challenges. Nursing was an emotionally rewarding area of work, the nurse participants obtaining most satisfaction from being able to 'nurse the child better'. Nurses cared about the children but failed to realise that the emotional neutrality associated with their professionalism was interpreted by the children as a lack of affection. It is found that the child participants tended to be traumatised by their hospital experiences. The cause of this trauma is found to be the way in which nurses practiced according to a scientific and professional paradigm. Unwittingly, this last resulted in the nurses being perceived by the child participants as lacking in affection or emotional 'care' for them as children. Many of the participants remain confused and troubled by this aspect of their experience. By the end of the period 1920-1970 the system of discipline and hierarchy was being disassembled and nursing began to evaluate itself and subject itself to scientific scrutiny. At the same time, paediatric nursing did change to become more child and family orientated and it began to present a more 'human' face to the child patients and their families. These changes are identified with broader changes in society to which paediatric nursing did eventually become aligned.

The work of historians over the past decade has done much to clarify the nature of the impact of cheap imports on British agriculture in the late nineteenth century. A feature of such work has been the emphasis placed on the positive adaptation of agriculture in changing economic circumstances; an emphasis which runs counter to the older tradition of historical writing on this subject. There has, however, been less attention paid to the process by which this tradition came to be established, originating as it did in the contemporary response of public opinion to the fate of agriculture. It was not the economic fortunes of agriculture alone which excited contemporary interest. Rather, it was the effect of these on the role which agriculture played in the life of the nation and the effect on the nature and status of those classes whose incomes derived directly from the land. In fact, for contemporaries, interest lay not so much in the agricultural question as in the Land Question. A general historical literature has touched on various aspects of this contemporary interest in the land and agriculture. It is the purpose of this thesis to attempt a more systematic approach to this interest and, more specifically to examine the problems of agriculture within the context of attitudes towards the land and rural society. Two major themes emerge within this context. The first concerns those most closely involved with the economic and technical aspects of agriculture. It is connected with their appreciation of the need for adaptation and as to how this should be met, or, alternatively, rendered unnecessary. The second is the wider interest in structural change in agriculture as an answer to associated economic, social and political problems. As such, it encompasses the historical background to the variegated schemes of land reform advanced in the late nineteenth century, the nature of these and their relation to contemporary interest in the status of the agricultural labourer. It also raises the questions of the political response to the advocacy of land reform and of the defence of the continued existence of the English land system. Finally, an examination of the historiography of this and later periods reveals the degree to which these two themes have contributed towards a traditional picture of an agricultural system in dire straits.

The thesis examines the case of Barrow-in-Furness through the period of the First World War. As a town dominated by one of the UK’s most important armaments firms, Vickers, Barrow experienced the full force of industrial mobilisation and government intervention. In analysing the responses to these events, the thesis provides insights into their impact on a town and population dependent on industries stimulated by war. Barrow had special problems arising from its geographical isolation and large munitions population. Vickers, the work force and the town at large were used to negotiating their own difficulties, but these were severely tested by the impact of war. Industrial relations in a heavily unionised but strategically important town were complicated by the different positions of Vickers, unions, shop stewards, rival government agencies, and the role of women, yet ultimately all parties found ways of working together. The knock-on effects of the war on industry were extensive and far reaching. The life of the town was intimately bound up with the war industry and the changes in war requirements ultimately affected its population through housing, health and welfare and the need for utilities and transport. Addressing these difficulties posed some of the greatest problems. Political implications of wartime in a working-class town led to a split in the Labour Party and ultimately the return of a Tory in 1919. While historians have considered how the nation met the demands of the war, a focus on the regionality of the home front highlights more precisely the impact on specific places and how the war effort was sustained in practice. The experience of the town of Barrow throughout the period of the First World War is therefore invaluable for demonstrating the complexity and inter-relatedness of how the war affected people, industry and infrastructure on the home front.

This thesis is concerned with the artificial feeding of very young children during the second half of the nineteenth century, and its implications for infant health and survival. The decline of breastfeeding which occurred in England between the years 1850 and 1900 was regarded by contemporary critics as largely responsible for the high rate of infant mortality which persisted throughout the half century, at a time when premature deaths in other age-groups were declining in number. This thesis examines, in the light both of contemporary judgements and of modern knowledge, the artificial feeding methods which were adopted in place of breastfeeding. Changes in medical attitudes and opinion during this period in relation to artificial feeding are described, and their influence on popular feeding practice in different social contexts discussed. Rival influences, such as shortcomings in the supply of certain foods and the pressure of commercial advertising, are also examined, and the influence of social factors in general on the development of effective methods of artificial feeding assessed. Finally, the state of health of handfed infants as described in contemporary sources is considered in relation to their diet. Contemporary assumptions about the relationship between artificial feeding and high infant mortality and morbidity are largely found to be justified; it is argued that the period 1850 to 1900 was, nevertheless, one of notable advance both in attitudes towards handfeeding and in the technical skill and understanding which was brought to bear on the problems it involved. Although this period itself saw no reduction in the infant mortality rate, it is seen as a time of adjustment to new ideas and practices, forming a necessary prelude to subsequent and more effective attempts at reform.

This thesis is a history of the gas industry down to 1914 with special reference to London. Part One deals with the industry's origins and its technical and business history and traces the development from the discovery of coal gas manufacture at the end of the seventeenth century to its first commercial exploitation in the early nineteenth century. It then sets out the subsequent technological progress made in the industry from the manufacturing process to the applications of coal gas. The commercial history of the gas companies in London is related from the early period of competition between an increasing number of speculative and often fraudulent concerns to the agreement of monopoly districts in the 1850s and amalgamation in the 1870s. The increasing government and legislative regulation is dealt with in detail and biographies of the leading industrialists are given. Part One concludes with an analysis which sets out to explain the nature and progress of the industry, its initial innovation, the pace of subsequent technological change and its commercial history, particularly relating to growth, competition, the actual role of government regulation and municipalisation, the relationship with the electricity industry and other linkages with the rest of the economy. Part Two deals with the fortunes of the workers employed in the London gasworks and deals with working conditions, wages, hours, welfare benefits and the attempts of the companies to discipline their men. It relates the early strikes in London particularly those of 1834, 1859 and 1872 and looks at the rise of the permanent union in 1889, the winning of the eight hour day and the prolonged strike at the South Metropolitan company in 1889-90. The history of the profit sharing schemes which became a feature in gas companies is given as is a brief history of some aspects of the National Union of Gasworkers and General Labourers down to 1914. Part Two concludes with some analysis to explain the major variables in the labour relations of the gasworks, especially wages, strikes and the level of union membership.

This thesis is a collection of essays on the political economy of the interwar years. It aims to address two of the most prominent and characteristic aspects of the interwar international economy; the break-up of the Gold Standard system and the rise of trade protectionism. I argue that extensions to the franchise are crucial to understanding both of these phenomena. Using evidence based on macro-level panel data analysis, micro-level public opinion surveys as well as numerous qualitative sources, I construct an argument that stresses the importance of these changes in voting rights to economic policy decisions; changes that can help explain the unusual nature of the interwar international economy. The effect of the extended franchise will not be examined in isolation however, with the influence of a number of other important aspects of the political and economic environment also taken into consideration. As arguably the most interesting and novel result of these analyses is the suggested effect of the granting of voting rights to women, the voting preferences of women are examined more closely in an additional chapter using a unique record of women’s voting from Weimar Germany. This allows for the difference between men and women’s actual voting preferences to be explored, something that is usually impossible due to the use of secret ballots. The fact that the separation of votes by gender occurred during one of the most important periods in modern history gives the analysis an even greater significance.

This thesis examines the phenomenon of civil violence in Genoa (1160-1220). Genoese civil conflicts in the period are victim to a historiographical paradox. While their importance for the survival of communal institutions has been frequently underlined, they have often been misrepresented in the historiography. Our current understanding of civil conflicts in Genoa is in need of a reassessment if we want to deepen our comprehension of the history of a city that is considered a key centre and fundamental building bloc in the rise of the European continent to economic prominence. This thesis studies civil violence from a perspective that takes into account the shifting form of Genoese conflicts and their protagonists. The civil conflicts in Genoa saw constant development in their intricacy, nature and participants (Chapter one). I distance myself from the issue of motives and causation, a pursuit which has misled scholars. Instead I focus my attention on the underlying patterns that made conflicts in Genoa possible -- the web of relationships among the families of the Genoese elite – in order to study how the individuals and families that were involved in civil violence made their decisions (Chapter two). The understanding of these links and of the development of conflict in Genoa is an important thread to follow in order to reassess several aspects of the political history of the city between the twelfth and the thirteenth century (Chapter three). In light of my findings, the institutional transition of the city from a commune led by consuls to one led by a foreign podestà (Chapter four) and the Genoese involvement in the Mediterranean scenario (Conclusion), appear shaped by the maturing phenomenon of civil violence. This thesis aims to fill the current gap in academic studies on civil conflict in Genoa and to turn the phenomenon from a footnote to the current historiography into a rich vein of historical understanding of the fundamental dynamics of the city and its development.

This dissertation looks at slavery in early Mesopotamia (ca. 3200-1595 BC) in the longue durée and establishes theoretical foundations for interpreting the data preserved in the extant sources. Rather than attempting to define slavery, the forms the social institution took from proto-history into the historical era of early Mesopotamia are contextualised, while identifying the broader social changes which might explain the non-linear evolution of the practice. After considering the difficulty of defining the term ‘slave’ in relation to early Mesopotamia in general and numerous attempts to approach the problem, this work moves beyond definition, attempting to historicise slavery. To achieve this, slavery in early Mesopotamia is considered in the high points of the record in relation to key diagnostic features. The acquisition of slaves is studied alongside the release of slaves, demonstrating the numerous ways people in early Mesopotamia could be reduced to some form of bondage or slavery, while there remained relatively few means by which a person could experience upward movement out of slavery, opportunities which were reduced further for foreign and houseborn slaves. The following discussion of the economics of slavery seeks to place the question in an historical context of modern scholarship before assessing the motivations, benefits, and risks of owning slaves in early Mesopotamia. After this chapter which looks at slavery from the perspectives of the elite, the subsequent chapter attempts to move beyond the elite bias of the documentation to understand history from the bottom, by studying flight and the related means of coercion. By considering the ways in which runaways were pursued and the risks members of the lower stratum community were willing to take for a change in status, the discussion presents a way forward to understanding slavery in early Mesopotamia. These diagnostic features of slavery reveal a traceable non-linear evolution of slavery in early Mesopotamia.

'Marry - Stitch - Die - or Do Worse' ran a Times newspaper leader in 1857. Yet a significant proportion of the adult female population at this time were surviving without a husband, particularly in London. This thesis focuses on the activities of such women who never married, were deserted or became widowed. Sometimes labelled 'redundant', 'distressed' or 'failed' by their contemporaries, they were frequently unsupported. In the face of substantial barriers to paid employment, this thesis argues that self-employment and small business proprietorship was often a viable option. The evidence presented suggests a somewhat different picture to that often generalised for all middle and upper class women in the nineteenth century - that of retreat into the private sphere of home to become the ‘angel in the house’. A wide variety of sources have been drawn upon to examine women's use of small business proprietorship as a strategy in nineteenth century London, including published diaries, trade cards, opinion pieces, trade directories and insurance records. In addition, it is argued that it is only by following the female proprietor home that we can begin to understand the role of proprietorship in women's work-life strategies. Record linkage has been used to obtain more detailed and consistent information on the families and household's of female proprietors than that available from trade directories or newspaper advertisements. Common stereotypes of women in business in this period relating to age, marital status and so on have been assessed in the light of this evidence. This research has revealed that these stereotypes have some truth in their application to women engaged in the production and typically 'male' trades but that such trades represent only a small fraction of the experience and activities of female proprietors.