The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) requires that students with disabilities (SWD) be educated in the least restrictive environment, while the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) requires that these students meet minimum criteria on statewide testing by 2014. This sequential explanatory mixed methods action research study, situated in Bandura's self-efficacy and Atkinson's drive theories, examined the effects of teacher training and subsequent implementation of strategies on the intrinsic motivation of SWD. Intrinsic motivation was measured using the Children's Academic Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (CAIMI) before and after the training. A repeated measures t-test analyzed the mean difference in the students' responses to determine whether teacher training and subsequent implementation of motivational strategies had a significant effect on the intrinsic motivation of SWD in the general education classroom. Mean scores on the pre and post administrations of the CAIMI were not statistically different, t(13) = 1.426, p = .177. A focus group interview with the students' teachers provided data, which helped ascertain how teachers perceived the relationship between teacher training in motivational intervention strategies and teacher practice and levels of intrinsic motivation for SWD in inclusive classrooms. Typological analysis revealed teachers perceived a relationship between the training, their practice, and intrinsic motivation of SWD. Finally, qualitative responses were compared to responses on individual CAIMI items to explain inconsistencies between expected outcomes, actual results, and theory. Implications for positive social change are evidenced by the data that demonstrate a better understanding of motivation for SWD for educators and administrators seeking ways to merge requirements for NCLB with IDEA.

Regular education teachers' self-efficacy may be negatively impacted due to a lack of professional development and experience teaching students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Research links teacher self-efficacy with increased student academic achievement. The purpose of this study was to examine to what degree training on ASD during and following teacher certification and experience had on overall teacher self-efficacy. This one-shot case study was based upon Bandura's theoretical construct of self-efficacy and secondarily on Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, and Hoy's theory of self-efficacy. The Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scales (TSES) was used to collect data from regular education teachers with experience teaching students with ASD in 1st through 3rd grades in a Southern California school district. After the data were assessed for accuracy, missing data, and outliers, the analysis was conducted on 36 cases. MANOVAs were conducted to assess differences on overall self-efficacy. Separate ANOVAs were used since the overall self-efficacy and the subscores were highly correlated. Though the sample in this study was small (n = 36) for data analysis, the effect size showed that training experience and grade levels had a moderate to large effect on teacher self-efficacy (.16, .13, .13 respectively). Therefore teacher self-efficacy has a positive impact on student achievement. Implications for positive social change are self-efficacious teachers increase the academic achievement of students with ASD. In this way, such students can become self-sustaining, dynamic members of the work force and community.

Federal and state guidelines direct students with disabilities to the least restrictive environment (LRE). The inclusion of students with disabilities in the LRE (general education) has been an issue for many public schools. In an effort to promote inclusive education for students with disabilities, many special education teacher--chairpersons experience opposition from the general education teacher and their administrator regarding LRE placement. The purpose of this qualitative case study, grounded in the theory of leadership, was to examine the leadership experiences of chairpersons of special education services in middle schools and their perception of the LRE decision-making process for placement for students with disabilities in their school. The primary research question that guided this study involved understanding how leadership experiences of chairpersons of special education services impact decision making about instructional placement in the least restrictive environment for students with disabilities. Data were collected from 5 teacher--chairpersons for special education service from a middle school who were purposefully selected to participate in face-to-face interviews. Data were analyzed using a thematic within-case analysis. The findings included the need for instructional leadership for (a) the decision making process, (b) staff development, and (c) socialization of students with disabilities to improve LRE placement of students with disabilities. Providing insight into the leadership experiences of the chairpersons for special education service may have implications for positive social change including addressing misunderstandings about LRE placement and instructing more students with disabilities in the LRE.

Teachers in a school district in a southeastern state are being challenged to meet the needs of students who have learning disabilities (LDs) and who require an individualized education program with a mathematics goal. The students are in danger of not passing state, district, and classroom mathematics tests, and not all the schools are meeting adequate yearly progress (AYP). Funding from the federal government is denied if a school does not achieve AYP; the school personnel must then complete a school improvement plan. The purpose of this study was to explore which differentiation instructional (DI) practices inclusion teachers were using to promote math academic achievement for underperforming students with LDs in inclusion math classrooms. A grounded theory approach was used to explore inclusion teachers' perceptions on the effectiveness of DI with students with LDs in inclusion math classes. Survey and interview protocols were developed and administered to collect data. Data were open, axial, and selectively coded, and were synthesized into categories and subcategories following emerging themes and patterns. Triangulation, member-checking, and an audit trail were used to validate the findings. A theory of effective instructional practice is presented from the teachers' viewpoint. This study may impact positive social change by identifying instructional practices that allow better access to mathematics for students and thereby has the potential to impact student achievement.

Of the 6.6 million children in the United States who were deemed in 2008 to have a disability that required special instruction, over 39% were classified as specific learning disabled (SLD). This figure translates into a high number of people who are parenting a child identified as having a SLD. Bronfenbrenner's theory of the ecology of human development indicated the importance of interconnections between school, home, and community settings. Collaboration between teachers and families may be strengthened by utilizing knowledge gained from parents' lived experiences of parenting an adolescent identified as having a SLD. The primary research question guiding this phenomenological study involved understanding the experiences of parents with adolescents identified as having a SLD. Data from in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 12 parents were collected and analyzed by employing the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen method. The analysis revealed that the recognition and the acceptance of a child's otherness permeated the parent experience of SLD while four other interconnected contexts emerged concerning parents' lived experiences with: (a) their identified child, (b) other family members, (c) teachers and staff, and (d) other members of an individual education planning team. The study found that parents adopted roles such as caretaker, cheerleader, legal analyst, and child advocate in order to obtain the educational services they deemed appropriate for their child. This study gave voice to parents of adolescents who struggle academically. The findings promote social change by informing and encouraging educators to support and promote collaboration with parents of adolescents identified as having a SLD, potentially enabling those students to receive better educational services.

Attrition of special education teachers is a national problem resulting in lost monetary resources, school climate discontinuity, and lower student achievement. Within a small, rural district in southern Indiana, special education teacher attrition has risen since 2008 and continues to rise. District administrators want to retain teachers to ensure a continuity of instructional services for students with special needs. To explore this problem, an intrinsic qualitative case study was employed, guided by a research question that investigated the factors that special education teachers and administrators perceived as influencing special educators' career decisions. Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and Billingsley's schematic representation of special education attrition and retention comprised the conceptual framework. Data collection included one-on-one semistructured interviews with 7 teachers and 5 administrators and teacher retention documents. Data analysis involved in vivo coding and an inductive process to collapse data into the 3 following themes: (a) daily challenges, (b) retention factors, (c) transfer or leaving factors. A project arose from the study. Using salient interview data, a professional development plan was designed to address teachers' needs of relevant professional development (PD) and collaboration. The PD plan will establish a professional learning community and utilizes free evidence-based online training modules to support reading comprehension of students with special needs. Positive social change may result from improvements in PD support provided by the district to retain its special education teachers, resulting in greater continuity of instruction for students with special needs who depend on high quality, experienced educators.

Engagement in mathematics lessons has a positive impact on student numeracy achievement. Yet special education students have experienced a significant drop in mathematics achievement from one year to the next, and this gap continues to grow. This mixed methods study examined the extent to which equal opportunities, similar to those offered to regular education students, are provided to special education students. It contributes to the body of knowledge regarding level of engagement of regular and special education students, the impact of their increased participation and engagement on numeracy achievement, and the ways to increase their level of engagement. Grounded in Kamii's theory of constructivism, Vygotsky's notion of the zone of proximal development, and Schon's reform of teaching and learning, the research questions addressed the level of participation of special and regular education students, the impact of increased engagement, and ways in which teachers can increase the level of engagement during lessons. Utilizing a concurrent nested strategy, the study utilized a sample of 375 students. The qualitative portion focused on text analysis of interview transcripts, and the quantitative portion focused on teacher/student interactions for each group. Results indicated that special education students are not as engaged in numeracy lessons, which may hinder their numeracy achievement. Findings revealed that special education students are being denied more than one-third of their deserved engagement time. Implementing more effective teaching strategies is recommended as a means to increase levels of engagement. Educators in every role may benefit from the results of this study. Social justice and positive social change is an urgent need for them in terms of quality of service.

Previous research has shown that because remediation and support replace required and career-defining courses, exceptional students fall behind, ill equipped to act in society as autonomous adults. No Child Left Behind requires reading proficiency, so students failing standardized tests must take remedial courses. Individualized education plans often require support courses. However, there remains an important gap in the literature regarding the usefulness of reading, standardized testing, and leadership research to solve this problem. A class combining reading and support for students with exceptionalities exists at 1 high school. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the combined program to determine whether a specific program intended to meet federal and state performance-based standards affected test scores. This study used a single-group pretest-posttest design to analyze the 2007 and 2008 Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test Reading scale scores of 25 of the 30 students with exceptionalities enrolled in the combined course to determine whether a significant difference existed between these test scores. The paired-sample t test identified a significant difference between pretest and posttest scores, supporting the hypothesis that combining remediation and support increases progress. This study would be an important contribution to the existing literature by providing a viable solution to this problem by offering more opportunities for exceptional students to enroll in courses available to their mainstream peers. It also would enhance social change initiatives by facilitating the graduation and entry into productive adulthood of students with exceptionalities, allowing them to define career interests and remediate deficiencies simultaneously.

African American students have been historically underrepresented in gifted programs throughout the United States. Research about retaining identified African American students in gifted programs is limited. This qualitative phenomenological study examined the perceptions of a purposeful sample of seven identified talented and potentially talented African American middle school students about participation in gifted programs. The purpose of the study was to understand the meaning of participants' expectations, attitudes, and experiences with regard to participating and remaining in a gifted program or participating and then dropping out. Data were collected through individual interviews. Interpretative phenomenological analysis revealed that participants expected talented and gifted programs to be challenging, boring, or fun. Attitudes about learning in gifted programs included a preference for hands-on activities, the study of other cultures, accelerated work, and a desire for a daily class rather than a pullout program. Male and female African Americans experienced participation in gifted programs differently. Males perceived that they are normal and like everybody else, but females perceived the need to resist conforming to negative African American stereotypes. Recommendations that could improve retention rates for African Americans in gifted programs include revising policies regarding gifted program delivery and providing teacher training with an emphasis on African American cultural sensitivity. The contribution of this study to the body of research literature has implications for positive social change because developing the talents and gifts of African Americans through gifted programs could result in higher college graduation rates and greater employment opportunities.

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore and describe the influence culture has on the decisions Hispanic parents make to aid their children with autism. The research problems addressed are the influences culture may have on how professionals and external family members affect the choices parents make. Cultural and family systems theories formed the conceptual framework for the study. Researchers have found that cultural factors may lead to lower rates of diagnosis in Hispanic children with autism and parents' lack of knowledge of therapies and practices used to treat autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Five research questions guided this study. The focus of the first two questions was how culture may affect families seeking assistance; the focus of the third question pertained to how professionals play a part in therapies chosen; the fourth question focused in on the therapies families are choosing to aid their child with ASD. Finally, the focus of the last question was the involvement of external family members. Themes were highlighted, coded, and interpreted using interpretative analysis. The major themes found through triangulation included professional influences, concerns for children's futures as adults, parental involvement, and personalismo/familismo. The outcomes of the study demonstrate the influence professionals have on the families and the choices families make to aide their children with ASD. The findings can promote positive social change by aiding to inform professionals of the pinnacle role they play in the lives of Hispanic families with children with ASD. These finding will better aide professionals by helping them to understand the Hispanic culture as it may relate to having a child with ASD and thus assist families to understand and acquire needed services.