The purpose of this study was to construct a questionnaire for athletic coaches that measures (1) general knowledge of the menstrual cycle (MC) and oral contraceptives (OC); (2) specific knowledge of athletes' MC and OC use; and (3) beliefs about the MC, OC use, and sport performance. Focus groups comprising coaches and athletes first assisted in developing items for the questionnaire. Subject matter experts from the field of gynecology further judged the quality of items on the general knowledge portion of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was completed by 207 male (n = 85) and female (n = 122) coaches of middle school, high school, and collegiate teams from across the southeastern United States. Coaches' scores on the 24-item general knowledge section of the questionnaire ranged from 8 to 83 (maximum score available = 90). Female coaches scored significantly higher than did male coaches on the overall general knowledge test, as well as on both subscales of the test (MC and OC subscale). Significant main effects were also found according to the sport coached, the age of the coach, and the ages of the athletes. An item analysis was performed on the general knowledge test to determine item difficulty, item discrimination, and internal consistency. General knowledge test items require little revision and Cronbach's coefficient alpha for the overall test is 0.94 (MC subscale, alpha = 0.93; OC subscale, alpha = 0.84). Responses to items assessing specific knowledge of athletes' MC and OC use proved difficult to measure and to interpret with a reasonable degree of validity. However, in general, female coaches had more knowledge about their athletes' MC and OC use than did male coaches. Moreover, results from a series of logistic regression analyses indicated that gender may be useful in predicting the outcome of knowledge on various items. Responses to the final section of the questionnaire (items assessing coach beliefs) suggest the salience of investigating this research area. Primarily, coaches view the MC as a source of stress for athletes, coaches believe that the MC impairs sport performance, and coaches want documentation of monthly performance change patterns. Recommendations for future research endeavors and considerations of reliability and validity are also discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2008. / October 30, 2008. / Oral Contraceptives, Coach Knowledge, Menstrual Cycle, Coach Attitudes / Includes bibliographical references. / David Pargman, Professor Directing Dissertation; David Quadagno, Outside Committee Member; Marcy Driscoll, Committee Member; Akihito Kamata, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to develop a conceptual framework for studying a common sport phenomenon called Trash Talk (TT). Previous research findings reveal that alteration of emotional state affects both motivation (Boutcher, 1993; Silvia & Brehm, 2001) and performance (Hanin, 2000). It also reveals that distraction of attention has a direct influence on performing motor tasks (Abernethy, 2001). Thus, TT was considered here to affect the cognitive state of the recipient of TT by distracting his/her attention from the task, and at the same time decrease their motivation to compete by altering the affective state required for completing the task. Adult male and female athletes (n = 274) completed the TT Survey. A convenience sample of athletes was utilized in this study, which provided the opportunity to make preliminary explorations into the TT phenomenon. The TT survey is an original instrument developed specifically for this study corresponding to the theoretical scheme of TT. The survey was designed to explore the intentions and outcome perceptions of TT in the realm of competitive sport. The survey consisted of both closed and open-ended questions reflecting its exploratory nature. This necessitated the use of both quantitative (i.e., EFA, ANOVA) and qualitative (i.e., axial coding) research methods, which were used to collect and analyze data. Findings revealed that users of TT intended to attain an advantage over their opponent by simultaneously distracting their opponent and motivating themselves for the upcoming challenge. Users of TT perceived themselves as being highly effective when they employ TT as a feature of their competitive skill set. The recipients' perspective of TT was that it can sometimes negatively affect their cognitive and affective states during competition, and thus cause performance decline (Bandura, 1997; Lazarus, 2000; Vallerand, & Rousseau, 2001). However, when athletes responded from the recipient perspective they were more likely to refute the assertion that TT can have a significant impact on their athletic performance. There was support for the notion that TT can have paradoxical outcomes when used by athletes in competition. Results indicated that athletes, who face TT, might actually benefit from it (contrary to losing focus, or feeling a lack of motivation), in that their motivation and inspiration levels are elevated to a degree necessary for optimal performance (Hanin, 2000, Kamata, Tenenbaum, & Hanin, 2002). The study was also designed to explore which of the model's components athletes intend to affect most profoundly by using TT. The quantitative analysis resulted in one dimension emerged, consisting of emotions, cognitions, self-efficacy, and performance. Athletes could not distinguish among these components, and perceived them as an integrated dimension. This suggests rather than separating the affective, cognitive, self-efficacy, and performance components, TT should have a direct link to all of them simultaneously. The conceptual components in the model of TT were verified in this study using factor analysis of the survey responses completed by athletes. The data clearly show a prevalence of TT in the sports environment. TT can affect cognitive and affective states, and this simultaneously affects self-efficacy and performance. However, all the components that compose the model are more mutually dependent than expected, and results should be viewed from this perspective. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester 2005. / November 2, 2005. / Trash Talk / Includes bibliographical references. / Gershon Tenenbaum, Professor Directing Thesis; Alysia Roehrig, Committee Member; Marcy Driscoll, Committee Member.

Previous research by Bloom (1985) and Côté (1999) illustrated the developmental patterns of elite athletes. Additionally, Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Romer (1993) introduced the theory of deliberate practice, which has since attempted to explicate elite athletic achievement. These three primary areas of research into the development of athletic expertise have drawn cause-and-effect relationships between environmental factors and sport achievement level, minimizing possible predisposing natural factors and neglecting the impact of any potential interactions among factors. The current study is the first to interview very accomplished athletes (i.e., swimmers) of differing achievement levels, a parent of each, and their coach. The objective of this study was to uncover potential reasons for performance differences among athletes who experienced similar developmental and training backgrounds, i.e., competed for the same team and coach and grew up in families with similar resources. Analyses of qualitative and quantitative data support and clarify a 4-factor, interactive systemic model. These four factors, as they relate to the development of athletic expertise, include: (a) high effort factors, (b) environmental factors, (c) coping factors, and (d) physically and psychologically predisposing factors. All four are likely required to become an elite athlete, and must be present in such a manner that they are systematically and idiosyncratically functional for the athlete in his or her unique environment, as each by itself may be inadequate to reach expert performance. "Hard work beats talent until talent decides to work hard." Coach of swimmers E4, S4a, and S4b / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2006. / June 17, 2005. / Development of Athletic Expertise, Sport Psychology, Competitive Swimming / Includes bibliographical references. / Gershon Tenenbaum, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Gary Peterson, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Charles Imwold, Outside Committee Member; Steven I. Pfeiffer, Committee Member; Alysia D. Roehrig, Committee Member.

A study was designed to explore a proposed conceptual scheme linking the concepts of perceived exertion, flow, and the attention strategies of association and dissociation. The purpose of the current study was to: 1) examine whether attention allocation would vary as a function of perceived effort, 2) examine if flow would vary as a function of attention allocation, and 3) examine if flow would vary as a function of perceived effort. Sixty high school and collegiate rowers were recruited to participant in the rowing ergometer task. Participants were divided into 30 experienced (15 males and 15 females) and 30 novice rowers (15 males and 15 females) based on years of experience. After establishing a maximal power output, participants were asked to row at 30%, 50%, and 75% workload intensities for 10 minutes. At each minute, measures of heart rate, attention, and perceived exertion were taken. After completion of all sessions, participants completed the Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2), commitment checks, and recorded their thoughts. Results demonstrated that: 1) as workload increased, perceived exertion and heart rates significantly increased, and attention significantly shifted from dissociation to association; 2) as workload increased, endorsement of the nine flow dimensions also changed. Merging of action and awareness, sense of control, and clear goals were felt more intensely during lower levels of perceived exertion and dissociation, while total concentration and challenge-skill balance were more highly endorsed during higher levels of perceived exertion and association. 3) Males and females did not differ in their use of attention as workload increased. In regards to flow, females reported higher global flow at the highest workloads, while males reported higher global flow at the 30% workload. 4) In regards to experience, novice and experienced rowers did not significantly differ in attention allocation or flow experience as workload increased. Results lend support for the proposed conceptual model in that a relationship did exist between perceived exertion, attention allocation, and flow. Both attention allocation and endorsement of the nine flow dimensions shifted as workload and perceived exertion increased. Future research should further examine the conceptual model in different settings and activities. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2007. / June 20, 2006. / Experience, Gender, Rowing, Flow, Perceived Exertion, Attentional Strategies, Association, Dissociation / Includes bibliographical references. / Gershon Tenenbaum, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Gary Peterson, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Lynn Panton, Outside Committee Member; F. Donald Kelly, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact the use of a systems approach and educational informatics has had on a public charter high school and overall student performance. The Central Educational Center represents an ideal opportunity to conduct such a study since it was founded by Dr. Joe Harless, considered one of the forefathers of human performance technologist (HPT), to address specifically the problem of poor student preparation by the public schools to enter the work force upon leaving high school. The study used a mixed-method approach and its results suggest the modest use of systems principles in the planning, design, and implementation of CEC. The school's use of educational informatics or the use of information and computing technologies in learning, instruction, and improving educational performance (Levy, et al., 2003) was also examined and found to have been applied in classroom instruction and for use in administrative purposes (i.e. attendance) but not effectively utilized in the collection and use of data in measuring and attaining the school's organizational objectives as an educational system. In addition, CEC appears to possess school dimensions consistent with successful educational reform efforts and school processes identified with positive student achievement. A post-hoc analysis of three year's worth of data contrasting CEC and non-CEC students suggested that CEC is having an impact on students in two primary soft-skill areas – school absences and tardiness. The CEC group (n=27) showed a reduction in instances of unexcused tardiness from 10th to 12th grade by 40% (a 5.48 average to 3.3 average, respectively) while the non-CEC group (n=27) in contrast experienced a 38% increase (a 7.0 average to a 9.3 average, respectively) in unexcused tardiness over the same time period. The mean between group differences at the 12th grade level for unexcused tardiness of the two groups were found to be statistically significant (t(52) = -2.71, p The implications of the study suggest that the use of systems design and educational informatics has been partially implemented at CEC leading to a positive impact on student work ethic and overall stakeholder satisfaction levels. CEC represents a positive example of how a charter school can serve as a source of collaboration and partnership between major stakeholders working towards the common goal of preparing students for future careers and postsecondary education. Furthermore, CEC appears to reflect the overall intent of career and technical education (CTE), which is to prepare students for positive and integrated career, social, and academic outcomes. CEC is currently being replicated formally in three Georgia counties and a major topic for future study is to explore to what extent this model can be replicated and generalized to other schools. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2008. / July 19, 2007. / Educational Reform, Instructional Design, Educational Informatics, Charter Schools / Includes bibliographical references. / Marcy Driscoll, Professor Directing Dissertation; Larry Dennis, Outside Committee Member; Zane Olina, Committee Member; Linda Schrader, Committee Member.

The current exploratory study examined nine individual case studies to better understand the process of test anxiety and test anxiety treatment through students with and without learning difficulties. Select students participated in a nine-week test anxiety reduction treatment program that used progressive muscle relaxation and systematic desensitization to help them improve their levels of anxiety while studying, their efficiency while studying, their overall degree of academic competency, and their grade point averages. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2007. / October 17, 2006. / Case Study, Progressive Muscle Relaxation, Behavioral Therapy, Anxiety Hierarchy, Systematic Desensitization, Anxiety, Learning Disabilities, Test Anxiety / Includes bibliographical references. / Frances Prevatt, Professor Directing Dissertation; Martin Fennema, Outside Committee Member; Donald Kelly, Committee Member; Briley Proctor, Committee Member.

A Helicopter Rescue Swimmer is one of the most physically and mentally demanding jobs in the United States Coast Guard (USCG). In order to become a USCG Helicopter Rescue Swimmer, interested candidates must successfully complete a rigorous 18-week training program, called Aviation Survival Technician (AST) A-School, where the average attrition rate is over 50%. Within military and civilian literature, few researchers have reported on performance in Search and Rescue (SAR) environments. More specifically, to the researcher's knowledge, there are no empirical reports on the psychological components needed for optimal Helicopter Rescue Swimmer performance. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to build upon pilot research in which AST A-School Instructors identified psychological components of high-level AST performance, as well as stressors that students commonly encounter during AST A-School (Sanchez, 2009). Maintaining emotional control and displaying strong commitment were two of the nine identified psychological components leading to high-level AST performance. A case study research design involving qualitative inquiry was selected as the best method to gain a deeper understanding as to how emotional and commitment influence AST A-School student performance. One AST A-School class (N = 11) was followed on-site throughout the duration of the four-month training program to capture the students' experiences and build upon the study's research questions. Due to the lower than average attrition rate and number of dismissed students with training related injuries, it became difficult to examine psychological components of successful and unsuccessful AST A-School students. As the weeks progressed during data collection, new themes emerged and the purpose of the study shifted to examining the variables influencing successful AST A-School performance within a larger than average graduating class. Several themes emerged from data obtained in this investigation. First, although Go (i.e., passed AST A-School, n = 7) and No-Go (i.e., dismissed from AST A-School, n = 4) students reported high commitment to complete the training program; the Go students reported slightly higher commitment than the No-Go students. Examining the quality of students' commitment aided in gaining a deeper understanding of the reasons why students remained committed to completing AST A-School. The Investment Model/Sport Commitment Model (Rusbult, 1980; Scanlan, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons, & Keeler, 1993) was utilized as a framework for describing AST A-School Commitment. High perceived rewards, low attractive alternatives, high personal investment, social constraints acting as motivators, and high perceived involvement opportunities contributed to understanding why students remained committed throughout AST A-School. Second, social supports consisting of a spouse, family members, and fellow classmates emerged as personal resources for AST A-School students that facilitated coping with many of the stressors encountered during the course. Fellow classmates emerged as the most commonly utilized form of social support. The positive class dynamics of the Go Group appeared to be a factor facilitating students' success in the training program. Interview data with the Go students revealed several key characteristics of the class dynamics that aided in creating a positive learning environment: (a) supportiveness, (b) shared leadership, (c) camaraderie, (d) similar skill level, (e) cohesion, and (f) open communication. Third, the mental skills of attention control and self-confidence emerged as skills facilitating successful AST A-School performance. Fourth, results were consistent with initial pilot study data (Sanchez, 2009) and served to refine an understanding of AST A-School stressors. Students identified numerous stressors that one must cope with while participating in AST A-School: (a) AST instructors, (b) experiencing a restricted airway, (c) managing personal life responsibilities, (d) skill tests, (e) the uncertainty of training, (f) becoming injured, and (g) time management. Fifth, Go students and No-Go students appraised stressors as both challenging and threatening. Overall, both sets of students reported experiencing more negative emotions when encountering AST A-School Stressors, as compared to positive emotions or mixed emotions. The coping efforts of Go and No-Go students served specific purposes (i.e., functions), and these purposes varied by the stressor. Sometimes students' coping efforts for a particular stressor served multiple purposes. Students also utilized a wide assortment of coping strategies to manage each stressor. These coping strategies also varied by the individual. Within each stressor, specific strategies emerged to facilitate specific coping functions. When comparing the coping strategies between the Go and No-Go Groups, the No-Go students typically coped to manage their emotional responses to stressors. On the other hand, the Go students primarily coped to redefine the personal meaning of stressors. The Go students engaged in a variety of coping strategies, however, "keeping things in perspective by accepting and redefining into a positive" was the most frequently reported coping strategy. The study's findings contribute new performance psychology knowledge in understanding how emotional control, commitment, and class dynamics influence performance in military settings. Applications for the applied consultant are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / May 28, 2010. / Performance Psychology, Mental Toughness, Paratelic, Aquatic Environment, Mental Skills, Stress / Includes bibliographical references. / Gershon Tenenbaum, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lynn Panton, University Representative; Robert Eklund, Committee Member; Alysia Roehrig, Committee Member.

Adolescents who become mothers during their teenage years are a population of concern due to the incidence and widespread impact of teenage motherhood across several areas of functioning. In particular, parenting stress has been suggested to be an issue that is often experienced by adolescent mothers, as well as an issue that may have a negative impact upon other areas (Chang & Fine, 2007; Larson, 2004). However, previous research has noted a relationship between general support provided to an adolescent mother and reduced parenting stress (Devereux, Weigel, Ballard-Reisch, Leigh, & Cahoon, 2009; Uno, Florsheim, & Uchino, 1998); Whitson, Martinez, Ayala, & Kaufman, 2011). Previous research has suggested that an adolescent's own mother, the father of her baby or her current partner, her friends, and her other family members are important and commonly received sources of support (Colletta, 1981; Devereux et al., 2009; Voight, Hans, & Bernstein, 1996). Similarly, emotional support, financial support, and infant caretaking support have been identified as important and commonly received types of support (Henly, 1997; Rhodes & Woods, 1995; Spieker & Bensley, 1994; Voight et al., 1996). However, previous research on sources and types of support has been inconsistent and has largely not addressed their relationship to parenting stress. The purpose of the current study was to address this gap in the literature by exploring the amount of Source and Type of Support Combinations received by adolescent mothers, as well as to identify which combinations of source and type of support are significantly related to reductions in parenting stress for adolescent mothers. To accomplish this purpose, the scale utilized in Devereux et al. (2009) was modified to create the Source and Type of Support Scale, used in this study to measure the amount of Support Source and Type Combinations received by adolescent mothers. Parenting Stress was measured with the use of the PSI-SF (Abidin, 1990). 136 adolescent mothers, defined as younger than 20 years of age with one or more children, were recruited both online and in person from schools, service programs, and agencies. The mean age of participants was 18.4 years old, with an average of 1.2 children. The majority of participants had successfully completed high school, were either married or in a dating relationship, and fell within the lowest brackets of household income. Descriptive statistics were calculated to determine the amount of Support Source and Type Combinations reported as received by adolescent mothers. Results showed that Emotional Support from all sources, as well as Financial Support and Caretaking Support from both Mothers and the Father of the Child or Current Partner were reported as the most often received support by adolescent mothers. In addition, a multiple regression analysis was utilized in order to explore the relationship of the Support Source and Type Combination variables in predicting Parenting Stress. The average Parenting Stress reported by adolescent mothers in this study fell at the 55th percentile. Four of the Support Source/Type Combinations (Emotional Support from Mother, Caretaking Support from Mother, Financial Support from Father of the Child or Partner, and Emotional Support from Other Family Members) were found to be significantly correlated with Parenting Stress and were included in in the multiple regression analysis, explaining 16.3% of the variance in Parenting Stress. In addition, increased Emotional Support from Other Family Members was found to significantly predict decreased Parenting Stress. While replication of the results with a sample more representative of the broader population of adolescent mothers is necessary, the identified relationship between Emotional Support from Other Family Members and Parenting Stress demonstrates the importance of providing this source/type of support combination to adolescent mothers. Future research may expand upon this finding with applications to providing services to adolescent mothers. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / December 12, 2013. / Adolescent Mothers, Parenting Stress, Support / Includes bibliographical references. / Angel Canto, Professor Directing Dissertation; Karen Randolph, University Representative; Frances Prevatt, Committee Member; Debra Osborn, Committee Member.

Prior research has documented a general decline in children's learning value and self-concept (i.e., expectation for success), beginning in the first years of school. Students who demonstrated patterns of low academic value and low academic self-concept often tend to perform poorly in school (Gans, Kenny, & Ghany, 2003). In the present thesis work, the author further investigated children's self-concept (i.e., expectation for success) and task-values by asking students to rate themselves in math and reading, compared to the others in their class. Student ratings were then compared with teacher report to determine if student overestimation predicts his or her self-concept and value in both reading and math. This is a quantitative study, based on a sample (n = 173) of students within four counties in the southeastern United States. The subsequent quantitative data analysis was conducted by utilizing correlational analyses, regression analyses, and path analyses. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2014. / June 16, 2014. / Math, Motivation, Overestimation, Reading, Self-Concept, Value / Includes bibliographical references. / Beth M. Phillips, Professor Directing Thesis; Jeannine E. Turner, Committee Member; Yanyun Yang, Committee Member.

International students face deeper and more complicated transitional issues in addition to the "normal" transitional issues that student-athletes face (Boyer & Sedlacek, 1986; Hechanova-Alampay, Beehr, Christiansen & Van Horn, 2002). The process of transition from one culture to another is known as Acculturation (Castro, 2003). The role of gender, academic classification (time at the U.S institution), length of time in the U.S., and sport type, are examined in this study to elucidate their effects on the acculturation process. Questionnaires were used to examine participants' acculturation integration, orientation, acculturative stress and social support. Many mixed reviews in the current literature were echoed in the current study with few statistically significant results for the demographic variables investigated. Attention is drawn to the study design and complex nature of culture studies as avenues necessary to be reviewed when reconsidering this topic (Castro, 2003). This investigation of acculturation is of great interest for coaches, athletic administration, and athlete support professionals who seek to work and further support this growing population of international-student-athletes (Connell, 2007). / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / April 28, 2014. / Acculturation, International Student, Student-Athlete / Includes bibliographical references. / Gershon Tenenbaum, Professor Directing Dissertation; Tom Ratliffe, University Representative; Robert Eklund, Committee Member; Deborah Ebener, Committee Member.