This dissertation presents studies of both anodic and cathodic electrodeposition of thin films, and their applications as supercapacitors and electrocatalysts for polysulfide reduction and oxidation.

The effects of the microstructure of metal films on electric component performance and longevity have become increasingly important with the recent advances in nanotechnology. Depending on the application of the metal films and interconnects, certain microscopic structures and properties are preferred over others. A common method to produce these films and interconnects is through electrodeposition. As with every process, the ability to control the end product requires a detailed understanding of the system and the effect of operating conditions on the resulting product. To address this problem, a three-dimensional on-lattice kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) method is developed to conduct atomistic simulations of single crystal and polycrystalline metal electrodeposition. The method utilizes the semi-empirical multi-body embedded-atom method (EAM) potential that accounts for the cohesive forces in a metallic system. The resulting computational method, KMC-EAM, enables highly descriptive simulations of electrodeposition processes to be performed over experimentally relevant scales. In this work, kinetically controlled copper electrodeposition onto single crystal copper under galvanostatic direct-current conditions and polycrystalline copper under potentiostatic direct-current conditions is modelled using the aforementioned KMC method. Four types of surface processes are considered during electrodeposition: deposition, dissolution, surface diffusion and grain boundary diffusion. The equilibrium microstructures from single crystal experiments were validated using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations through the comparison of energy per atom and average coordination number. The growth mode observed is in agreement with experimental results for the same orientation of copper. MD simulation relaxes constraints and approximations resulting from the use of KMC. Results indicate that collective diffusion mechanisms are essential in order to accurately model the evolution of coating morphology during electrodeposition. In the polycrystalline simulations, the effect of surface energy is taken into account in the propensities of deposition and dissolution. Sub-surface grain volume measurements were obtained from simulation results and the grain volume evolution with time is in agreement with both qualitative observations based on the deposit morphology and surface energy calculations. Simulations of polycrystalline deposition agree with findings from experimental studies that the evolution of the root-mean-squared roughness of the deposit during the early stages of deposition follows a power law relationship with respect to time $\approx t^{n}$. Furthermore, the power law exponent on time is determined to be $n \approx 0.5$, also in agreement with the experimental values reported in the literature.

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New phosphonium and ammonium ionic liquids were prepared for use in two green applications. Ionic liquids are generating considerable current interest as media for electrochemical processes such as electrodeposition, which can be used to create thin films of a variety of compounds. For the first time, silicon deposition has been achieved in the phosphonium ionic liquid triethyl(2-methoxyethyl)phosphonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide (P201-TFSI). Subsequently, silicon has been deposited from a wide variety of precursors in order to optimize the thickness and morphology of the deposited films. The silicon films electrodeposited in the phosphonium ionic liquid show marked differences from those deposited in organic solvents, imidizolium and pyrrolidinium based ionic liquids. Phosphonium and ammonium ionic liquids were also investigated for use in carbon dioxide capture. Task-specific ionic liquids have shown great promise as agents for the physisorption and chemisorption of CO2 from combustion gas streams. Efforts to synthesize new task specific ionic liquids with multiple amine functionalities for CO2 capture are reported. Four different reaction pathways were explored for the synthesis of these materials. While this goal was not achieved in this work, task-specific phosphonium and ammonium ionic liquids offer the promise of opening up new areas in ionic liquid research. / text

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An iodine surface layer has been prepared on Ru(poly) and Ru(0001) electrodes by exposure to iodine vapor in UHV and polarizing in a 0.1 M HClO4/0.005 M KI solution, respectively. A saturation coverage of I on a Ru(poly) electrode passivates the Ru surface against significant hydroxide, chemisorbed oxygen or oxide formation during exposure to water vapor over an electrochemical cell in a UHV-electrochemistry transfer system. Immersion of I-Ru(poly) results in greater hydroxide and chemisorbed oxygen formation than water vapor exposure, but an inhibition of surface oxide formation relative that of the unmodified Ru(poly) surface is still observed. Studies with combined electrochemical and XPS techniques show that the iodine surface adlayer remained on top of the surface after cycles of overpotential electrodeposition/dissolution of copper on both Ru(poly) and Ru(0001) electrodes. These results indicate the potential bifunctionality of iodine layer to both passivate the Ru surface in the microelectronic processing and to act as a surfactant for copper electrodeposition. The electrodeposition of Cu on Ru(0001) or polycrystalline Ru was studied using XPS with combined ultrahigh vacuum/electrochemistry methodology (UHV-EC) in 0.1 M HClO4 with Cu(ClO4)2 concentrations ranging from 0.005 M to 0.0005 M, and on polycrystalline Ru in a 0.05M H2SO4/0.005 M CuSO4/0.001 M NaCl solution. The electrochemical data show well-defined cyclic voltammograms (CV) with a Cu underpotential deposition (UPD) peak and overpotential deposition (OPD) peak. XPS spectra of Ru electrodes emersed from perchloric acid solution at cathodic potentials indicate that ClO4- anions dissociate to yield specifically adsorbed Cl and ClOx species. Subsequent Cu deposition results in the formation of a thin, insoluble Cu(II) film with Cu(I) underneath. In contrast, similar deposition on polycrystalline Ru in the sulfuric acid/Cu sulfate solution with NaCl added yields only Cu(0), indicating that the formation of Cu(II) and Cu(I) involves both Cl and perchlorate interactions with the deposited Cu. A pre-adsorbed layer of iodine on the Ru(0001) surface inhibits perchlorate dissociation in iodide-free electrolyte and leads to the deposition of Cu(0) in the perchlorate bath. XPS depth profile analysis demonstrates that the iodine monolayer "floats" on top of the deposited film, in agreement with previous results, effectively protecting the Cu film from air oxidation.

No presente trabalho foi proposta a construção de eletrodos de níquel e algumas ligas (Sn, Ru), assim como de materiais nanoestruturados, para a determinação de etanol em amostras de bebidas e medicamentos. Para isto, foram utilizadas técnicas como a voltametria cíclica, a cronoamperometria, a espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica, a microscopia de força atômica e a microscopia de transmissão. O eletrodo da liga Ni-Sn foi preparado por eletrodeposição, utilizando um banho de Watts contendo 6,25 g de NiCl2.6H2O e 0,5 g de SnCl2.2H2O em 25 mL de solução aquosa. Os depósitos foram modificados com RuO2, utilizando uma solução RuCl3 0,1 M. O eletrodo da liga foi deixado na solução em banho de ultrasson e posteriormente aquecido a 400ºC em forno em presença de oxigênio, para a decomposição térmica. O Ni nanoestruturado foi preparado a partir de uma solução contendo 1,8 g NiCl2.6H2O dissolvido em 30 mL etanol, adicionando uma mistura de 3,5 g de Zn em pó e 10 mL de aminoetanol, em agitação. A separação do pó preto foi feita com uma placa magnética. Para a confecção do eletrodo foi adicionada uma alíquota 10 mL da solução contendo o pó, náfion e etanol, na superfície do eletrodo de grafite pirolítico. Os perfis voltamétricos foram analisados em meio de hidróxido de sódio 0,5 M, podendo-se assim observar as reações de oxi-redução característica do Ni, da liga Ni-Sn, da liga modificada com RuO2 e da nanoestrutura. Foi utilizado intervalo de potencial de 100 a 700 mV com velocidade de 50 mVs-1. As medidas de impedância eletroquímica foram realizadas em sistemas com etanol com o intuito único de demonstrar a presença de um loop indutivo, que pode ser associado à transformação óxido superior/óxido inferior na superfície do eletrodo. Este loop foi observado para os eletrodos de Ni e liga, não sendo muito evidente para o eletrodo modificado com RuO2. Foram realizadas medidas de AFM para a caracterização topográfica dos eletrodos, mostrando a diferença entre as superfícies, indicando que o Ni liso foi modificado com o eletrodepósito da liga Ni-Sn e que esta também foi modificada pela deposição do RuO2. A morfologia da nanoestrutura foi observada por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, podendo observar que se obtiveram estruturas de níquel em escala nanométrica. Os eletrodos foram utilizados na determinação de etanol em meio de NaOH 0,5 mol L-2, com a construção de curvas analíticas pelo método da adição consecutiva de alíquotas de etanol, a partir de uma solução estoque. Após a curva analítica ser levantada, foram feitos os tratamentos estatísticos obtendo-se os valores para os limites de detecção e quantificação. Com o eletrodo Ni nanoestruturado obteve-se o melhor resultado sendo este empregado na determinação de etanol nas amostras de conhaque, cachaça e enxaguante bucal, utilizando a técnica de cronoamperometria. A excelente porcentagem de recuperação obtida mostrou que o efeito da matriz, nestas determinações, é praticamente desprezível, o que está de acordo com o mecanismo da reação de oxidação do etanol sobre Ni, fortemente catalisado pela superfície dos eletrodos em estudo. / This objective of this work is related to the development of nickel and some nickel-alloys electrodes, as well as some nanostructured nickel surfaces, for ethanol determinations in drinks and in pharmacological formulations. For this, some experimental techniques were employed, as cyclic voltammetry, cronoamperometry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and transmission microscopy. The Ni-Sn alloy electrode was prepared by electrodeposition from a Watts bath containing 6,25 g NiCl2.6H2O and 0,5 g SnCl2.2H2O and water in order to produce 25 mL of aqueous solution. The electrodeposits were further modified with RuO2 obtained from a 0.1 mol L-1 RuCl3 solution. The Ni-Sn alloy electrode were allowed in the ruthenium solution in ultrasonic bath and further heated to 400 oC in the presence of oxygen, in order to promote the thermal decomposition of ruthenium chloride. The nanostructured Ni surface was obtained from a chemical deposition in a solution composed by 1.8 g NiCl2.6H2O dissolved in 30 mL ethanol and adding 3.5 g of powdered Zn and 10 mL of aminoethanolic solution, under mechanical stirring. The black powder precipitated was separated by a magnetic rod. In order to prepare the electrode, with such powder, a 10 mL aliquot of solution containing the Ni powder, Nafion® and ethanol were dipped in a pirolitic graphite surface and allowed to dry. The voltammetric profiles were analyzed in order to evaluate the oxireduction characteristics of Ni surfaces, as well as the Ni-Sn alloy and the RuO2 modified surfaces and the nanostructured one. A potential window between 100 and 700 mV was scanned at 50 mV s-1, in 0.5 mol L-1 NaOH electrolyte. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements were performed in electrolytes containing ethanol, in order to observe the presence of an inductive loop, which has been associated to the low/high valences Ni oxides formed during ethanol oxidation on such surfaces. This loop was quite evident in Ni surfaces but not on the surfaces modified with RuO2. AFM measurements were performed in order to obtain the topological characteristics of the surfaces, indicating the eventual alterations associated with the RuO2 modifications. The nanostructures morphology was investigated by transmission microscopy were the nanometric dimensions of Ni phases were evident. The developed electrodes were applied in ethanol determinations in 0.5 mol L-1 NaOH solutions, prepared with Milli-Q water. The successive standard additions were used to obtain an analytical plot. After the analytical plot has been obtained, statistical analyses were performed, in order to determine the detection and quantification limits, as well as the errors involved in such determinations. As the Ni nanostructured electrodes yielded the best results, it was used in the determination of ethanol in samples of cognac, \"aguardente\" (sugar cane distilled drink) and mouthwash liquids, using chronoamperometry. The excellent recoveries percentages obtained showed that the matrix effect, in such determinations, was almost depreciable. This is related with the high catalytic power of Ni surfaces towards the ethanol oxidation reaction.

Understanding electron-transfer (ET) processes in proteins is of fundamental importance. In a series of photophysical studies of well-behaved peptide model systems, it has become evident that the ET through peptide spacers is greatly influenced by the separation between the acceptor (A) and the donor (D), the nature of the peptide backbone, the amino acid sequence, and the resulting flexibility of the peptide conjugates. In particular, it was suggested in the literature that the presence of H-bonding will increase the rate of ET, and there is experimental evidence, mostly in proteins, to suggest that H-bonding indeed increases the rate of ET.<p>My aim was to develop a potential-assisted deposition method for ferrocene peptide disulfides onto gold surfaces and investigate the electrochemical properties of these films. We made use of two classes of Fc-peptides: acylic ferrocenoyl (Fc)-peptide disulfides and cyclo-1,1-Fc-peptide disulfides, allowing the preparation of tightly packed films of cyclic and acylic Fc-peptides on gold surfaces within 30 minutes. This is a significant benefit compared to the conventional soaking method of self-assembly requiring several days for the assembly of well-packed films. Such films exhibited considerably improved stability. This electrodeposition method should find wide-spread applications for the formation of tightly-packed films from disulfides. Our studies allowed a direct comparison of the electron transfer kinetics of cyclic and acyclic Fc-peptide disulfide systems. Our results showed faster ET kinetics for films prepared from cyclic Fc-peptide conjugates compared to the acyclic systems, presumably as a result of the enhanced rigidity of the Fc-peptide conjugates on the surface and/or an increase of the number of conductive peptide wires to the surface. Following the idea of peptide dynamics as a major contributor to the observed electron transfer rate in peptides and peptide conjugates, variable temperature electrochemical studies of Fc-peptide films were performed. An estimation of the reorganization energy associated with ferrocene/ferrocenium (Fc/Fc+) redox process allowed us to probe the role of peptide dynamics. Three counter-ions were tested, exhibiting different strengths of association with the Fc+ group (BF4- < ClO4- < PF6-) and the reorganization energies were evaluated in each case. The highest reorganization energy was obtained for the weakly interacting anion BF4-. Weakly interacting anions also showed significant broadness in the redox peaks and emergence of the second oxidation peak which is attributed to phase separation of the ferrocene group. Ferrocene agglomeration was not observed for any of the cyclic Fc-peptide conjugates but occurred for some of the acyclic systems. In particular, for acyclic Val and Leu containing Fc-peptide conjugates agglomeration were observed and was presumably caused by lateral interactions between the hydrophobic side-groups of the peptides. Further experiments involving the interaction of Fc-peptide films with alkali metal ions gave additional evidence that electron transfer is influenced significantly by peptide dynamics.