No description available.

This thesis is missing page i, all other copies are missing this page as well. - Digitization Centre / Emergence of efficient cooling techniques has been a crucial factor in development of faster and more powerful electronic equipment and ICs. One of the key obstacles towards further miniaturization is efficient heat removal from regions of high temperature to maintain continued operation of these devices below their maximum operating range. Recently, a significant amount of research has been directed to develop liquid based cooling techniques. For example, microchannel heatsinks have been designed to remove up to 1 kW/cm2. Developing microscale actuators that provide sufficient pressure head is essential for integrating these microscale cooling schemes with the electronic devices. Different techniques can be used to pump fluid in the microscale such as electroosmotic, magnetohydrodynamic, and electrohydrodynamic (EHD) pumping. Among these technologies, EHD pumps are particularly promising for microfluidic devices because they use no moving parts, and uses very small power and has low cost and maintenance requirements. This work presents the development and test of EHD micropumps with different electrode configurations. Four different electrode configurations: (1) planar symmetric electrodes, (2) planar asymmetric electrodes, (3) 3-D symmetric electrodes, and (4) 3-D asymmetric electrodes were investigated. In addition, the effect of different design specifications, such as the inter-electrode spacing and spanwise spacing of the micropillars were investigated. The electrodes were fabricated using a two mask process. First, a thin layer of chromium was deposited on glass as a seed layer for gold electrodes. Positive photoresist (AZ P4620) was patterned to form the mould for the micropillar electrodes. Nickel was electroplated to fill the mold. Subsequently, a Cr/Au layer was patterned to devise the electrode base connector and pads. The microfluidic channels were fabricated by casting polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) on top of an SU-8 100 (MicroChem Corp.) mould which was patterned to delineate the microchannel structure. The PDMS microchannel was integrated on the electrode base by plasma oxidizing the PDMS and glass wafer, and sealing the connection with liquid PDMS. The pump performance was experimentally determined with Methoxynonafluorobutane (HFE-7100) as the working fluid. All of the micropumps were tested under a no net flow condition to find the maximum pressure generation. The micropumps with planar and asymmetric planar electrode configurations were also tested for maximum flow rate under no imposed back pressure. The results show that the micropumps with the 3D asymmetric electrode design generated a higher pressure head compared to the other micropumps with identical inter electrode spacing under no flow conditions. The micropumps with planar asymmetric design had a higher performance compared to the micropumps with planar asymmetric electric under both no flow condition and no back pressure condition. A maximum pressure head of 2240 Pa was generated at an applied voltage of 900 V by the micropump with 3D asymmetric electrode design. A maximum flow rate of 0.127 mL/min was achieved by the micropump with planar asymmetric electrode configurations. This is five times higher than the maximum flow rate generated by the micropump with the planar symmetric electrode design. / Thesis / Master of Science (MS)

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) pumping of single and two-phase media is attractive for terrestrial and outer space applications since it is non-mechanical, lightweight, and involves no moving parts. In addition to pure pumping purposes, EHD pumps are also used for the enhancement of heat transfer, as an increase in mass transport often translates to an augmentation of the heat transfer. Applications, for example, include two-phase heat exchangers, heat pipes, and capillary pumping loops. In this research, EHD induction pumping of liquid film in annular horizontal and vertical configurations is investigated. A non-dimensional analytical model accounting for electric shear stress existing only at the liquid/vapor interface is developed for attraction and repulsion pumping modes. The effects of all involved parameters including the external load (i.e. pressure gradient) and gravitational force on the nondimensional interfacial velocity are presented. A non-dimensional stability analysis of EHD induction pumping of liquid film in a vertical annular configuration in the presence of external load for repulsion mode is carried out. A general non-dimensional stability criterion is presented. Stability maps are introduced allowing classification of pump operation as stable or unstable based on the input operating parameters. An advanced numerical model accounting for the charges induced throughout the bulk of the fluid due to the temperature gradient for EHD induction pumping of liquid film in a vertical annular configuration is derived. A non-dimensional parametric study including the effects of external load is carried out for different entrance temperature profiles and in the presence of Joule heating. Finally, a non-dimensional theoretical model is developed to investigate and to understand the EHD conduction phenomenon in electrode geometries capable of generating a net flow. It is shown that with minimal drag electrode design, the EHD conduction phenomenon is capable of providing a net flow. The theoretical model is further extended to study the effect of EHD conduction phenomenon for a two-phase flow (i.e. a stratified liquid/ vapor medium). The numerical results presented confirm the concept of liquid film net flow generation with the EHD conduction mechanism.

This thesis makes a novel contribution to the state-of-the-art literature on EHD melting enhancement of PCMs showing the effects of electroconvection flow and solid extraction during the melting process. The details of the contribution made by this work have been disseminated in the form of three journal publications, which have been integrated into this sandwich Ph.D. thesis. / Latent heat thermal energy storage plays an important role in bridging the gap between the energy supply and consumer demands. The latent heat storage systems use phase change materials (PCMs) which are characterized by their high latent heat and therefore lead to higher energy densities. However, one major disadvantage of PCMs is their low thermal conductivities which affects the rates of charging and discharging. Electrohydrodynamics (EHD) offers an opportunity as an active heat transfer enhancement method which can significantly enhance the melting rates while being able to control the heat transfer as per the system’ needs with a very low power consumption. The application of EHD in two-phase solid liquid systems results in generating electroconvection flow in the liquid medium which increases the heat transfer coefficient and decreases the melting time. The main objective of the current work is to study the heat transfer enhancement and the role of EHD forces during the melting of phase change materials (PCMs) under constant temperature boundary conditions. There are two main investigations performed in the current study. First is experimentally studying the EHD melting enhancement of PCMs while applying high voltages through two rows of electrodes embedded inside the PCM. Moreover, in the experiments, solid extraction was investigated using high-speed imaging conducted at various locations with respect to the electrodes. In the second investigation, PCM melting in a rectangular cavity under the effect of EHD and constant temperature boundary conditions is studied numerically. The flow field, temperature field, and phase field are simulated during the melting process until a steady state condition is reached. Additionally, the effect of the applied voltage and temperature boundaries on the electroconvection flow is illustrated. Experimentally, the EHD melting enhancement of paraffin wax is examined under different applied DC voltage magnitudes and polarities, and different temperature gradients. In addition, the role of EHD forces was investigated by applying DC and AC square waves with different frequencies and offset values. The results showed that the melting enhancement increases with a nonlinear relation with voltages, wherein the maximum effective thermal conductivity was found to be 0.95 W/m-K at -10 kV in comparison with the value of 0.2 W/m-K for the pure liquid paraffin wax, with an enhancement ratio of 4.75. The Coulomb force was concluded to be the dominant EHD force in the study while the dielectrophoretic effect was negligible. Characterization of solid extraction was performed by measuring the intensity of extraction, and the size and velocity of dendrites after extraction at different applied voltages and temperature boundaries for different phase change materials having different mushy zone thickness. For paraffin wax, solid extraction was detected for all the applied DC voltages. Small dendrites were observed to be pulled out from the mushy zone melt front and rise upwards in a rotational manner. The extraction intensity was found to be high at locations of high Coulomb force near the electrodes. In addition, solid extraction measurements showed that the size and velocity of the extracted dendrites increase alongside the applied voltage while the velocity decreases at higher temperature boundaries. Finally, it was found that the existence of a large mushy zone results in higher solid extraction intensities. A numerical model was conducted using the finite element method to investigate the EHD melting of PCMs. In the model, the non-autonomous charge injection assumption is used with the Coulomb force being the only electrical body force considered. First, phase-change modeling is conducted to simulate the melting of paraffin wax without EHD under constant temperature boundary conditions until a steady-state condition is achieved. Next, the whole set of coupled EHD equations is introduced to the model to simulate the EHD melting process. The results revealed that two electroconvection cells were generated between each two successive electrodes in the liquid PCM. The EHD flow leads to the redistribution of the temperature field which enhances the heat transfer. EHD melting continues until a steady-state condition is regained after one hour of EHD time, at which point the enhancement ratio was found to be 2.33 at 6 kV. The influence of the applied voltages and temperature boundaries on the electroconvection flow showed that the fluid velocity increases significantly by increasing the voltage while it decreases under higher temperature gradients across the liquid region. This thesis makes a novel contribution to the state-of-the-art literature on EHD melting enhancement of PCMs showing the effects of electroconvection flow and solid extraction during the melting process. The details of the contribution made by this work have been disseminated in the form of three journal publications, which have been integrated into this sandwich Ph.D. thesis. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Όταν ένα εναλλασσόμενο ηλεκτρικό πεδίο, χαμηλής συχνότητας, εφαρμόζεται κάθετα σε ένα στρώμα νηματικού υγρού κρυστάλλου, με πάχος της τάξης από 10 μm έως 100 μm, παρατηρείται ένας αναπροσανατολισμός του πεδίου του κατευθυντή. Πρόκειται για την περίπτωση της μονοδιάστατης μετάβασης Freedericsz, όπως επίσης και για τη δισδιάστατη ή τρισδιάστατη περίπτωση της ηλεκτροϋδροδυναμικής αστάθειας. Λόγω της διπλοθλαστικότητας των νηματικών υγρών κρυστάλλων, η έναρξη της αστάθειας, και στις δύο περιπτώσεις, προκαλεί σε μονοχρωματική φωτεινή δέσμη, που προσπίπτει στο νηματικό στρώμα, αλλαγή στην ένταση ή/και στη φάση της, με επακόλουθο ιδιαίτερα οπτικά αποτελέσματα. Οι αστάθειες παρατηρούνται όταν η εξωτερικά εφαρμοζόμενη εναλλασσόμενη τάση είναι υψηλότερη από μία τιμή κατωφλίου, ο προσδιορισμός της οποίας έχει ιδιαίτερη σημασία σε πιθανές ηλεκτροοπτικές εφαρμογές των νηματικών υγρών κρυστάλλων. Το κατώφλι της αστάθειας καθορίζεται μέσω της παρατήρησης του οπτικού αποτελέσματος, καθώς η φωτεινή δέσμη προσπίπτει στο νηματικό στρώμα. Όταν η εξωτερικά εφαρμοζόμενη τάση είναι χαμηλότερη ή ίση με την τιμή κατωφλίου, το οπτικό αποτέλεσμα είναι μηδενικό. Καθώς η τιμή της τάσης αυξάνει, σταδιακά εμφανίζεται, όλο και πιο έντονα, το ιδιαίτερο οπτικό αποτέλεσμα της αστάθειας. Έχοντας υπόψη την παραπάνω πειραματική συμπεριφορά, μπορεί κανείς να υπολογίσει την τάση κατωφλίου αρκεί να καθορίσει, μέσω οπτικής παρατήρησης, το σημείο έναρξης της αστάθειας. Στην παρούσα εργασία παρουσιάζεται μία αντικειμενική μέθοδος πειραματικού προσδιορισμού της ηλεκτροϋδροδυναμικής αστάθειας, βασισμένη στην εξάρτηση του χρόνου αποκατάστασης του κατευθυντή, Τ, από την τιμή του εξωτερικά εφαρμοζόμενου ηλεκτρικού πεδίου. Όταν η εφαρμοζόμενη τάση τείνει στην τιμή κατωφλίου, ο ρυθμός εξασθένισης, 1/Τ, του πεδίου του κατευθυντή τείνει στο μηδέν. Επομένως, η γραφική παράσταση του 1/Τ σε συνάρτηση με την εξωτερικά εφαρμοζόμενη τάση καθιστά δυνατό τον προσδιορισμό της τάσης κατωφλίου της αστάθειας. / When an AC electric field in the acoustic frequency range is applied perpendicularly to a nematic liquid crystal layer, with a thickness of the order of 10μm to 100μm, a reorientation of the director of the nematic layer is observed. This is the case of the one dimensional Freedericsz instability, as well as of the two or three dimensional electrohydrodynamic instability. Due to the birefringence of any nematic material, the onset of the instability in both cases causes a monochromatic light beam illuminating the nematic layer, to change its intensity and/or its phase, resulting in spectacular optical effects. On the other hand, the instabilities are observed when the applied AC voltage is larger than a threshold value, the determination of which is of major importance for the potential electro-optical applications of nematic liquid crystals. As a rule, the instability threshold is determined by observing its optical effect on the incident of the monochromatic light beam : When the applied voltage is lower than or equal to its threshold value, the optical effect is zero. Upon further increasing of the applied voltage, the optical effect increases gradually. The measurement of the threshold voltage, based on the above experimental behavior, leads to a subjective estimation of the experimental result. One has to decide which optical result has to be considered to mark the onset of the instability. In what follows, we present a completely objective method for the experimental determination of the instability threshold, based on the dependence of the decay time, T, of the director field on the value of the electric field applied across the nematic layer. When the applied voltage tends to its threshold value, the decay rate, 1/T, of the director field tends to zero. Thus, plotting 1/T as a function of the applied voltage, enables us to graphically determine the threshold value of the latter.

No description available.

The breakup of liquid jets is ubiquitous with rich underpinning physics and widespread applications. The natural breakup of liquid jets originates from small ambient perturbations, which can grow exponentially until the amplitude as large as the jet radius is reached. For unelectrified inviscid jets, surface energy analysis shows that only the axisymmetric perturbation is possibly unstable, and this mode is referred as varicose instability. For electrified jets, the presence of surface charge enables additional unstable modes, among which the most common one is the whipping (or kink) instability that bends and stretches the charged jet that is responsible for the phenomena of electrospinning. A closer examination of the two instabilities suggests that due to mass conservation, the uneven jet stretching from whipping may translate into radial perturbations and trigger varicose instabilities. Although the varicose and whipping instabilities of electrified micro-jets have both been extensively studied separately, there is little attention paid to the combined effect of these two, which may lead to new jet breakup phenomena. This dissertation investigates the dynamic response of electrified jets under transverse electrohydrodynamic (EHD) perturbations which were introduced by exciters driven by alternating voltage of sweeping frequency. Three different jetting mechanisms are used to generate jets with various ranges of jet diameters: ~150 micrometer inertial jets from liquid pressurized through a small orifice, ~50 micrometer flow focused jets, and ~20 micrometer electrified Taylor-cone jets. The transverse perturbations enable systematic triggering of varicose and whipping instabilities, and consequently a wide range of remarkable phenomena emerge. For inertial jets with zero or low charge levels, only varicose instability is observable due to suppressed whipping instability. At modest charge levels, inertia jets can respond to the fundamental perturbation frequency as well as the second harmonic of the perturbation frequency. Highly charged jets such as fine jets generated from Taylor cones exhibit distinct behavior for different perturbation wavenumber x. Typical behavior include: whipping jets with superimposed varicose instability at small x, jet bifurcation from crossover of whipping and varicose instabilities at x~0.5, Coulombic fission owing to the surge of surface charge density as the slender liquid segments recover spherical shapes at x~0.7, and simple varicose mode near wave numbers of unity. The phenomena observed in this work may be explained by a linear model and rationalized by the phase diagram in the space of wave number and dimensionless charge levels. The experimental apparatus used in this dissertation is simple, non-intrusive, and scalable to a linear array of jets. The rich phenomena combined with the versatile apparatus may spawn new research directions such as regulated electrospinning, generating strictly monodisperse micro/nano droplets, and manufacturing of non-spherical particles from drying droplets that undergo controlled Coulombic fissions.

<p> The objective of this research is to investigate the effect of DC, AC and pulse wave applied voltage on two-phase flow patterns, heat transfer and pressure drop during tube side convective condensation of refrigerant HFC-134a in an annular channel. Experiments were performed in a horizontal, single-pass, counter-current heat exchanger with a rod electrode placed along the center of the tube. The electric field was applied across the annular gap formed by the electrode connected to the high-voltage source and the grounded surface of the inner tube of the heat exchanger. The electric field between the two electrodes was established by applying a high voltage to the central electrode. The high voltage was generated by amplifying the voltage output from a function generator. The flow was visualized at the exit of the heat exchanger using a high speed camera through a transparent quartz tube coated with an electrically conductive film of tin oxide.</p> <p> The effect of a 8 kV DC applied voltage was investigated for mass flux in the range 45 kg/m^2s to 160 kg/m^2s and average quality of Xavg= 45%. The application of the 8 KV DC voltage increased heat transfer and pressure drop by factor 3 and 4.5 respectively at the lowest mass flux of 45 kg/m^2s. Increasing the mass flux decreased the effect of electrohydrodynamic forces on the two-phase flow heat transfer and pressure drop.</p> <p> The effect of different AC and pulse wave applied voltage parameters (e.g. waveform, amplitude, DC bias, AC frequency, pulse repetition rate and duty cycle) on heat transfer and pressure drop was investigated. Experiments were performed with an applied sine and square waveform over a range of frequencies (2 Hz < f < 2 kHz), peak-to-peak voltages (2 kV < Vp-p < 12 kV) and DC bias voltage (-10 kV < VDc < 10 kV), and with an applied pulse voltage of amplitude 12 kV and duty cycle from 10% to 90%. These experiments were performed for a fixed mass flux of 100 kg/m^2s, inlet quality of 70%, and heat flux of 10 kW /m^2. For the same amplitude and DC bias, the pulse wave applied voltage provides a larger range of heat transfer and pressure drop control by varying the pulse repetition rate and duty cycle compared to the sine waveform.</p> <p> The effect of a step input voltage on two phase flow patterns, heat transfer and pressure drop was examined and analyzed for an initially stratified flow. The flow visualization images showed that the step input voltage caused the liquid to be extracted from the bottom liquid stratum toward the center electrode and then pushed to the bulk flow in the form of twisted liquid cones pointing outward from the central electrode. These transient flow patterns, which are characterized by high heat transfer compared to the DC case, diminish in steady state. The effect of the amplitude of the step input voltage and the initial distance between the electrode and liquid-vapour interface on the liquid extraction was investigated experimentally and numerically. At sufficiently high voltages, the induced EHD forces at the liquid-vapour interface overcame the gravitational forces and caused the liquid to be extracted towards the high voltage electrode. The extraction time decreased with an increase of the applied step voltage and/ or decrease of the initial distance between liquid interface and the high voltage electrode. The numerical simulation results were, in general, in agreement with the experimental results.</p> <p> The effect of pulse repetition rate of pulse applied voltage on two phase flow patterns, heat transfer and pressure drop can be divided into three regimes. At the low pulse repetition rate range, f < 10 Hz, the two-phase flow responded to the induced EHD forces, and liquid was extracted from the bottom stratum to the center electrode and then pushed back to the bulk flow in the form of twisted liquid cones. Increasing the pulse repetition rate in this range increased the repetition of the extraction cycle and therefore increased heat transfer and pressure drop. In the mid pulse repetition rate range, 10 Hz < f < 80 Hz, the extraction was not completed, which led to lower heat transfer compared to the lower pulse repetition rate range. In this range, the two phase patterns were characterized by liquid-vapour interface oscillations between the center electrode and the bottom stratum and liquid droplet oscillations which increased the momentum transfer and therefore pressure drop. Increasing the pulse repetition rate in this range decreased heat transfer and increased pressure drop. In the high pulse repetition rate range, f > 80 Hz, increasing the pulse repetition rate decreased both the interfacial and droplet oscillations and therefore decreased the heat transfer and pressure drop till the two phase flow patterns resembled that for an applied DC voltage. For the same pulse repetition rate, increasing the mass flux decreased the effect of EHD forces on heat transfer and pressure drop. The heat transfer enhancement ratio and pressure drop ratio increased with an increase of the duty cycle for the same pulse repetition rate of the applied voltage.</p> <p> Different combinations of pulse repetition rate and duty cycle of applied pulse wave voltage can be used to achieve different values of heat transfer and pressure drop. This can be very beneficial for heat transfer control in industrial applications. An advantage of such control is that it eliminates various measurements devices, control and bypass valves, variable speed pumps, fans and control schemes used in current technology for heat transfer and pressure drop control. The range of control of the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the pressure drop is from 8.24 to 20.56 for mass flux of 50 kg/m^2s and it decreased with increasing mass flux untill it reached 1.63 to 3.81 at mass flux 150 kg/m^2s.</p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

"Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) pumping relies on the interaction between electrical and flow fields in a dielectric fluid medium. Advantages such as simple and robust design as well as negligible vibration and noise during operation make EHD conduction pumping suitable for various applications. This work investigates meso-scale EHD conduction pumping used as an active flow distribution control mechanism for thermal management systems. Two different scenarios are considered for this purpose: alteration of uniform flow distribution and flow maldistribution correction. Its capability of actively controlling the flow distribution is examined in terms of the value of applied potential for initiation of flow divergence or flow equalization and the flow rate difference between each branch. Experimental results confirm that the reverse pumping direction configuration of EHD pumping is more effective than the same pumping direction configuration. A fundamental explanation of the heterocharge layer development is provided for the effect of flow direction on EHD conduction pumping performance. This study also involves a macro-scale EHD conduction pump used as an alternative mechanism of mixing liquid within a storage tank, for example under low-g condition. A numerical analysis of a simplified model of the experimental setup is provided to illustrate the liquid mixing and thermal homogenization process. The experimental and numerical study provide fundamental understanding of liquid mixing and thermal homogenization via EHD conduction pumping. Liquid-vapor phase change phenomena are used as effective mechanisms for heat transfer enhancement and have many applications such as HVAC&R systems. With this in mind, two detailed studies in pool boiling and in-tube flow condensation are carried out. Specifically, nucleate pool boiling on nano-textured surfaces, made of alumina ceramic substrate covered by electrospun nanofiber, is experimentally investigated. Also, the role of surface roughness and orientation in pool boiling is experimentally characterized. The in-tube convective condensation of pure water in mini-channels under sub-atmospheric pressure is also experimentally explored. This study provides valuable information for the design of condensers in a vapor compression cycle of HVAC&R systems using water as the refrigerant, this process has zero global warming potential. "

A new approach for the control of the size of particles fabricated using the Electrohydrodynamic Atomization (EHDA) method is being developed. In short, the EHDA process produces solution droplets in a controlled manner, and as the solvent evaporates from the surface of the droplets, polymeric particles are formed. By varying the voltage applied, the size of the droplets can be changed, and consequently, the size of the particles can also be controlled. By using both a nozzle electrode and a ring electrode placed axisymmetrically and slightly above the nozzle electrode, we are able to produce a Single Taylor Cone Single Jet for a wide range of voltages, contrary to just using a single nozzle electrode where the range of permissible voltage for the creation of the Single Taylor Cone Single Jet is usually very small. Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer (PDPA) test results have shown that the droplet size increases with increasing voltage applied. This trend is predicted by the electrohydrodynamic theory of the Single Taylor Cone Single Jet based on a perfect dielectric fluid model. Particles fabricated using different voltages do not show much change in the particles size, and this may be attributed to the solvent evaporation process. Nevertheless, these preliminary results do show that this method has the potential of providing us with a way of fine controlling the particles size using relatively simple method with trends predictable by existing theories. / Singapore-MIT Alliance (SMA)