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Thesis (M. Tech. Mechanical engineering -- Vaal University of Technology / Strict emission legislation has forced industry in general to seriously consider the negative impact it has on the environment, specifically concerning emissions from burning fossil fuel into the atmosphere. In cases where emission levels exceed the allowable limit, companies are forced to operate at lower operating conditions and these load losses can result in a significant loss of revenue. This has forced companies to improve their ash filtering capabilities by optimising electrostatic precipitation systems. One of the main factors impacting on the efficiency of such a system is the distribution of the flow across the collection plates. The design of the inlet diffuser plays a major role in the ultimate distribution of the flow through the precipitator. Porous screens are positioned in the diffuser in order to distribute the flow across the total flow area with the aim to achieve a uniform distribution of the flow. CFD is widely used in industry to simulate the flow through precipitators in order to optimise the flow distribution and thus increase the efficiency of the system. It was found however that the current methods used to simulate these screens in CFD models were not well researched and employed fixed resistance values that could not reliably compensate for changes in the resistance coefficient due to a change in the angle of incidence. This study investigates advanced numerical methods for the simulation of porous screens in applications where the angle of incidence changes continuously across the face of the screen. New methods are introduced where the resistance of the screen is calculated as a function of the changing angle of incidence. The methods currently used are also investigated and compared with results from the new methods. Extensive experimental work was required to supply empirical data for the validation of the numerical methods that are proposed. For this reason, the first part of this study focused on the design construction and commissioning of a low speed wind tunnel. Results are presented and discussed for flow profiles through wide-angle diffusers at different angles and also for a number of different screens positioned in the centre of the diffuser. This study also investigates the sensitivity of a CFD simulation code to factors such as numerical discretisation schemes, turbulence models and solution relaxation specifically for wide-angle diffusers. These factors were tested for diffusers at different angles and included tests on open diffusers and also with screens positioned inside the diffuser. It was concluded that the current methods used are not adequate to capture the true flow profiles for a range of different screen geometries. Although the proposed models did improve on the limitations of the current methods, it was found that the applicability of these models is still limited and that further research would be required to develop numerical methods that are valid for a wide range of applications. / Vaal University of Technology, The National Research Foundation (NRF) and Eskom TSI

ITC/USA 2009 Conference Proceedings / The Forty-Fifth Annual International Telemetering Conference and Technical Exhibition / October 26-29, 2009 / Riviera Hotel & Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nevada / Electrostatic approach is considered for mitigation of communication attenuation during the testing of laser powered directed energy weapon. Mitigation analysis is carried out for two target materials Al and Ti. Plasma parameters are obtained using one dimensional coupled analysis of laser-target interaction. Influence of laser beam frequency on plasma parameters is addressed. Sheath thickness is obtained using transient sheath calculations. It is found that uninterrupted telemetry can be achieved | using a maximum bias voltage of 10 kV, through Al plasma for fluences below 5 J/cm² and through Ti plasma for fluences below 2 J/cm².

Electrostatic interactions between charged species play a prominent role in determining structures and states of physical system, leading to important technological and biological applications. In coarse-grained simulations, accurate description of electrostatic interactions is crucial in addressing physical phenomena at larger spatial and longer temporal scales. In this thesis, we implement ENUF method, an abbreviation for Ewald summation based on non-uniform fast Fourier transform technique, into dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) scheme. With determined suitable parameters, the computational complexity of ENUF-DPD method is approximately described as O(N logN). The ENUF-DPD method is further validated by investigating dependence of polyelectrolyte conformations on charge fraction of polyelectrolyte and counterion valency of added salts, and studying of specific binding structures of dendrimers on amphiphilic membranes. In coarse-grained simulations, electrostatic interactions are either explicitly calculated with suitable methods, or implicitly included in effective potentials. The effect of treatment fashion of electrostatic interactions on phase behavior of [BMIM][PF6] ionic liquid (IL) is systematically investigated. Our systematic analyses show that electrostatic interactions should be incorporated explicitly in development of effective potentials, as well as in coarse-grained simulations to improve reliability of simulation results. Detailed image of microscopic structures and orientations of [BMIM][PF6] at graphene and vacuum interfaces are investigated by using atomistic simulations. Imidazolium rings and alkyl side chains of [BMIM] lie preferentially flat on graphene surface. At IL-vacuum interface, ionic groups pack closely together to form polar domains, leaving alkyl side chains populated at interface and imparting hydrophobic character. With the increase of IL filmthickness, orientations of [BMIM] change gradually from dominant flat distributions along graphene surface to orientations where imidazolium rings are either parallel or perpendicular to IL-vacuum interface with tilted angles. The interfacial spatial ionic structural heterogeneity formed by ionic groups also contributes to heterogeneous dynamics in interfacial regions.

Siemens Corporate Technology New Technology Fields Healthcare & Technology Concepts (CT NTF HTC) have proposed a novel electrostatic accelerator for nuclear medicine which aims at gradients of up to 10 MV m^-1. With beam currents of 100 μA at ≈10 MeV it might replace cyclotrons whilst being simpler, more reliable and more cost effective. The accelerator concept consists of concentric hemispherical metallic shells spaced by insulators and placed in a vacuum system. The shells are interconnected by high voltage diodes so that they form a voltage multiplier with its highest voltage in its centre. Particle beams can be accelerated towards the centre through a set of holes in the shells. In tandem mode, with a stripper in the centre and a negative ion source as injector, beams of twice the centre voltage can be achieved. This thesis presents several commissioning milestones of a test system for the novel electrostatic accelerator, thus validating the concept for commercial applications. An inter shell insulator has been designed and successfully tested to fields of 12 MV m^-1. A diode protection concept has been devised and validated in realistic breakdown scenarios. An AC drive system including control software has been developed, delivering a sinusoidal input voltage of up to 140 kV peak to peak at 80 kHz. An automatic process to carefully commission the high voltage system in vacuum has been created, implemented in a control system and successfully operated. A 4-shell prototype with these components has been successfully tested with achieved gradients of up to 5.5 MV m^-1. A negative hydrogen ion source has been constructed, commissioned and characterised with a purposely developed wire grid. Beam currents beyond 200 μA have been achieved. Beam transport from the ion source through the 7-shell system has been demonstrated in simulations which are based on experimental data from the ion source characterisation. A stripper system has been designed and constructed.

The objective of this thesis is to present a theoretical and experimental investigation of the dynamics of micro and nano-electromechanical systems electrothermally tuned and electrostatically actuated, and explore their potential for practical applications. The first part of the dissertation presents the tuning of the frequency of clamped-clamped micro and nano-resonators, straight and curved. These resonators are electrothermally or electrostatically tuned. The effect of geometric parameters on the frequency variation is investigated experimentally and theoretically using a reduced order model based on the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. High tunability is demonstrated for micro and nano beams, straight and initially curved. The second part discusses the dynamical behavior of a curved (arch) beam electrothermally tuned and electrostatically actuated. We show that the first resonance frequency increases up to twice its fundamental value and the third resonance frequency decreases until getting very close to the first resonance frequency triggering the veering phenomenon. We study experimentally and analytic ally, using the Galerkin procedure, the dynamic behavior of the arch beam. Next, upon changing the electrothermal voltage, the second symmetric natural frequency of the arch is adjusted to near twice, three times, and four times the fundamental natural frequency. This gives rise to a potential two-to-one, three-to-one, and four-to-one autoparametric resonances between the two modes. These resonances are demonstrated experimentally and theoretically. The third part of the dissertation is concerned with the incorporation of the electrothermally tuned and electrostatically actuated microresonators into potential applications: filtering and sensing. First, we experimentally prove an exploitation of the nonlinear softening, hardening, and veering phenomena of an arch beam, to demonstrate a flat, wide, and tunable bandwidth and center frequency by controlling the electrothermal actuation voltage. Second, a pressure sensor based on the convective cooling of the air surrounding an electrothermally heated resonant bridge is demonstrated experimentally. The concept is demonstrated using both straight and arch microbeam resonators driven and sensed electrostatically. The change in the surrounding pressure is shown to be accurately tracked by monitoring the change in the resonance frequency of the structure.

Orientador: João José Caluzi / Banca: Shirley Takeco Gobara / Banca: Sandra Regina Teodoro Gatti / Resumo: A História da Ciência pode ser uma importante ferramenta para fornecer subsídios para a aprendizagem significativa de conceitos físicos. Nesta pesquisa, promovemos discussões sobre textos históricos de fonte primária em sala de aula, em uma disciplina de Física Geral III de uma licenciatura em Física. O objetivo foi verificar se estas discussões foram profícuas para promover a aquisição de subsunções, pelos graduandos, para a aprendizagem significativa dos conceitos de carga elétrica, de eletrização e de materiais condutores e isolantes. Esta é uma pesquisa qualitativa, que pode ser classificada como estudo de caso. A pesquisa está fundamentada na Teoria da Aprendizagem Significativa de David Ausubel e no conceito de organizador prévio. A coleta de dados consistiu em aplicar um questionário inicial para a avaliação dos conhecimentos prévio dos alunos. Em seguida, foram aplicados três textos históricos, de fonte primária, de eletrostática do século XVII (S. Gray, C. F. Du e B. Franklin), e então aplicamos um segundo questionário, para avaliar os conhecimentos que os graduandos adquiriram com as discussões dos textos históricos. Os textos foram aplicados antes de o professor ministrar o conteúdo de eletrostática da disciplina de Física Geral III, com o objetivo de fornecer aos graduandos conhecimentos relevantes para a aprendizagem significativa deste conteúdo. O tratamento e a análise dos dados coletados foram feitos com base na análise de conteúdo, a qual subsidiou a sistematização e categorização dos dados brutos. Os dados revelam que parte dos graduandos adquiriu aspectos importantes dos textos discutidos, e desta forma, passaram a ter disponíveis, em sua estrutura cognitiva, alguns subfunçores para a aprendizagem significativa dos conceitos... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The History of Science can be an important tool to supply subsidies for the meaningful learning of physical concepts. In this research, we promoted discussions about historical texts of primary source in classroom, with university students of Physics, in a discipline of General Phusics III. The goal was to verify if these discussions were useful to promote the acquisition of subsumers for the meaningful learning of the electric charge concept, electrificacion concept and conducting and insulating materials concept. This is a qualitative research, that it can be classified as a study of case. The research is founded in the Theory of meaningful verbal learning of David Ausubel and in advance organizer's concept. The collection of data consisted in applying an initial questionnaire for the evaluation of relevant concepts in the learner's cognitive structure, oon afterwads they were applied three historical texts of primary source of electrostatics of the '18 POT. th' century (S. Gray, C. F. Du Fay and B. Franklin), and then we applied a second questionnaire to evaluate the knowledge that the learners acquired with the discussions of the historical texts. The texts were applied before professor supply the content of electrostatics, with the goal of supplying to the learners relevant knowledge for the meaningful learning of this content. The treatment and the analysis of the collected data were made with base in the content analysis theory, which subsidized the systematization and categorization of the data. The data reveal that some learners acquired important aspects of the discussed texts, and this way, they started to have available in his cognitive structure some subsumers for the meaningful learning of the electric charge concept, electrification concept and conducting and insulating materials concept. At the finish, we discussed how these subsumers can aid in the meaningful learning of the mentioned concepts. / Mestre

Quando uma pessoa fricciona os sapatos num tapete, seu corpo pode carregar-se com um potencial de alguns milhares de volts em relação ao referencial de terra. Se esta pessoa tocar um objeto aterrado, uma faísca pode salta entre o objeto e a ponta do seu dedo. O corpo desta pessoa age como um capacitor, e um fluxo rápido de eletricidade estática armazenada, resultado das cargas estáticas armazenadas no copo, flui deste para um objeto de potencial menor. Essas descargas podem provocar desde pequenos danos, como desconforto físico, até incêndios em grandes construções. Na tentativa de minimizar ou eliminar esses problemas, tapetes e carpetes antiestáticos são utilizados. Muitos métodos têm sido propostos para caracterizar esses produtos de acordo com suas características eletrostáticas. Dentre eles, o recomendado pela norma francesa NF G35-025 [Essais des Revêtements de Sol Textiles-Propension à l\'accumulation de Charges Életrostatiques, Méthode d\'essai et spécification, Décembre 1983], prescreve que alguém usando sapatos especiais deve caminhar em uma amostra de tapete por longo período e, então, o potencial eletrostático adquirido por ele é medido através de um eletrômetro. Por este método são reproduzidas as condições reais, mas, ele é muito caro e trabalhoso, pois requer uma sala climatizada. Na tentativa de descobrir métodos alternativos, encontram-se na literatura vários estudos e métodos. Taylor [An Instrument for Measuring Static Dissipation from Materials, Journal of Electrostatics, (1987) 53-64, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam-Printed in the Netherlands] desenvolveu um medidor de decaimento de carga para medir tempo de decaimento em polímeros antiestáticos. Nesse método, ele determinou uma boa correlação entre a resistência superficial e o tempo de meia-vida do material. Usando a mesma ideia, foi possível desenvolver o método apresentado nesta tese, aplicado a amostras de tapete e carpetes. Neste método, a caracterização eletrostática de tapetes ou carpetes é realizada também através da medida do tempo de decaimento do potencial eletrostático. Porém, sua ideia principal é que todas as medidas são realizadas dentro de uma câmara especial isenta de umidade, pois este pode influenciar o carregamento das amostras. Dentro desta câmara, as amostras de tapete ou carpete são inicialmente carregadas através de descarga corona, após cessar o carregamento, é medido o seu tempo de decaimento. Um programa computacional especialmente desenvolvido para este fim permite o controle da medição e do processo de carregamento. / When a person rubs his shoes in a rug, his body may be charged with a potential of some thousands of volts in relation to the earth reference. If this person touches a grounded object, a spark can travel between the object and the tip of his finger. The person\'s body acts like a capacitor, and a fast flow of stored static electricity, which is a result of the static loads stored in the body, flows from the body to an object in a smaller potential. Those discharges can cause from small damages, as physical discomfort, to fires in big constructions. ln the attempt to minimize or to eliminate these problems, antiestatic rugs and carpets are used. Many methods have been proposed 10 characterize those products in agreement with the electrostatic characteristics . Among them the recommended methods by the French standard NF G35-025 [Essais des Revêtements de Sol Textiles-Propension à I\'accumulation de Charges Életrostatiques, Méthode d\'essai et spécification, Décembre 1983], prescribe that somebody using special shoes should walk in a rug sample for a long period, and then the electrostatic potential acquired by him is measured using an electrometer. ln this method the real conditions are reproduced, but, it is very expensive and difficult, because it requires an aclimatized room. There are in the literature several studies attempting to devise alternative methods. Taylor [An Instrument goes Measuring Static Dissipation from Materiais, Journal of Electrostatics, (1987) 53-64, Elsevier Science Publishers B. V, Amsterdam-Printed in the Netherlands] developed a meter of charge decline to measure time of decline in antistatic polymers. ln his method, Taylor determined a good correlation between the superficial resistance and the time of stocking-life of the material. Using the same idea, it was possible to develop the method that is presented in this thesis, applied to samples of rugs and carpets. ln this method the electrostatic characterization of rugs or carpets is also accomplished through the measurement of the time of decline of the electrostatic potential. However its main idea is that all the measures are accomplished inside a special camera without humidity, since it can influence the charging of the samples. lnside this camera, the rugs or carpet samples are initially charged using corona discharge, after interrupting the charging, time of decline is measured. A computer program was especially developed for this reason, it allows the control of the measurement and of the charging process.

Neste trabalho é proposto um dispositivo MEMS do tipo micro-transdutor acústico capacitivo, CMUT (sigla em inglês - Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer). Em vez de usar piezoeletricidade, o CMUT tem um array de capacitores, onde cada capacitor possui um eletrodo inferior fixo, uma cavidade e o eletrodo superior composto de uma placa flexível. Quando submetida a uma tensão CC adequada, a placa se deflete se aproximando do eletrodo inferior devido à força eletrostática. Assim a placa fica tensionada podendo vibrar quando excitada por uma tensão CA. Neste caso o CMUT opera como emissor de ondas acústicas. A placa também pode ser excitada por uma onda acústica agindo em sua superfície. Neste caso o dispositivo opera como sensor. Uma das contribuições desse trabalho é o processo de fabricação simplificado com o uso do fotorresiste SU-8 como parte da estrutura do dispositivo. Sua facilidade de processamento e suas propriedades físicas lhe conferem estabilidade e rigidez adequadas para tal fim. Foram realizadas modelagens e simulações analíticas e computacionais do comportamento da placa. Os resultados auxiliaram no melhor entendimento do comportamento do dispositivo sob tensão mecânica devido a uma carga ou uma tensão de polarização. Esses resultados também auxiliaram na definição de parâmetros iniciais do processo de fabricação. Durante o processo de fabricação, foram realizados diversos testes a fim de se encontrar o processo mais adequado à infraestrutura disponível. No processo escolhido, a base do dispositivo é fabricada num substrato de vidro com eletrodos inferiores de alumínio depositados por evaporação. Os pilares são fabricados em SU-8, depositado por spin coatting. A placa é colada posteriormente utilizando-se fotorresiste AZ. O AZ é depositado sobre um pedaço de folha de cobre ou alumínio. As duas partes são colocadas em contato e para promover a colagem é aplicada pressão durante a cura. As amostras foram caracterizadas eletricamente utilizando-se um medidor de impedância RCL. Foram levantadas curvas de impedância, capacitância e ângulo de fase em função da frequência (1 kHz a 1 MHz). Além do sinal CA utilizado pelo instrumento durante a medição foi aplicado um nível CC que variou conforme as dimensões dos protótipos. Também foram levantadas curvas de impedância, capacitância e angulo de fase em função de uma carga mecânica aplicada. Para valores de polarização mais elevados, foram montados circuitos específicos. Estes circuitos são capazes de polarizar o CMUT, aplicar um sinal CA para medição e proteger demais componentes e instrumentos dos aparatos de medição. O dispositivo respondeu bem a aplicação de carga mecânica, excitação por sinal CA e excitação com onda mecânica. Os resultados mostraram que o dispositivo apresenta bom potencial para ser aplicado na análise de fluidos. / This work presents a new process to fabricate an acoustic micro transducer to be used as a microsensor or a microactuator. The acoustic transducers are based on the electrostatic effect and consist on arrays of microfabricated capacitors. Such devices are commonly referred as CMUT, Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer. The bottom electrode (evaporated aluminum) of each capacitor is fixed on the surface of glass substrate, while the top electrode is a thin plate structure of copper or aluminum suspended on a cavity surrounded by posts. Since the top electrode is flexible, it bends toward the bottom electrode when a DC bias is applied. In this way, the top electrode can be forced to vibrate using an AC signal to be used as an acoustic wave emitter. Conversely, an ultrasound receiver is achieved as the measured capacitance changes when the DC biased top electrode moves following an external acoustic wave pressure. An innovation of this work is the use of the photoresist SU-8 to fabricate the post structures surrounding the cavities of the capacitive micro transducers. Its relatively simple processing steps and adequate mechanical properties make the SU-8 a convenient choice as an inexpensive structural material. The bottom part of the device is prepared on a glass substrate using an aluminum layer evaporated and etched to form the bottom electrodes. Then, SU-8 is spin coated, baked and etched adequately to form the posts surrounding the cavities. The top part is prepared by simply spinning an AZ-type photoresist on aluminum or copper plate. Finally, both halves are bonded under pressure on a hot plate. Several modeling and simulation analyses were performed in order to estimate the working performance of the micro transducers. The results of simulations helped to define the initial parameters and materials for the fabrication process. Samples submitted to a DC bias were initially characterized using an RCL meter in order to infer impedance, capacitance and phase angle behavior as a function of frequency (from 1 kHz to 1 MHz). Protection circuits were used in order to test CMUTs with high DC bias. These circuits allow to apply high DC bias, and an AC signal while other measuring equipments are protected. The device responded to application of mechanical loading, excitation by an AC signal and excitation by mechanical wave as well. The results showed that the device has good potential to be applied to the analysis of fluids.

Quando uma pessoa fricciona os sapatos num tapete, seu corpo pode carregar-se com um potencial de alguns milhares de volts em relação ao referencial de terra. Se esta pessoa tocar um objeto aterrado, uma faísca pode salta entre o objeto e a ponta do seu dedo. O corpo desta pessoa age como um capacitor, e um fluxo rápido de eletricidade estática armazenada, resultado das cargas estáticas armazenadas no copo, flui deste para um objeto de potencial menor. Essas descargas podem provocar desde pequenos danos, como desconforto físico, até incêndios em grandes construções. Na tentativa de minimizar ou eliminar esses problemas, tapetes e carpetes antiestáticos são utilizados. Muitos métodos têm sido propostos para caracterizar esses produtos de acordo com suas características eletrostáticas. Dentre eles, o recomendado pela norma francesa NF G35-025 [Essais des Revêtements de Sol Textiles-Propension à l\'accumulation de Charges Életrostatiques, Méthode d\'essai et spécification, Décembre 1983], prescreve que alguém usando sapatos especiais deve caminhar em uma amostra de tapete por longo período e, então, o potencial eletrostático adquirido por ele é medido através de um eletrômetro. Por este método são reproduzidas as condições reais, mas, ele é muito caro e trabalhoso, pois requer uma sala climatizada. Na tentativa de descobrir métodos alternativos, encontram-se na literatura vários estudos e métodos. Taylor [An Instrument for Measuring Static Dissipation from Materials, Journal of Electrostatics, (1987) 53-64, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam-Printed in the Netherlands] desenvolveu um medidor de decaimento de carga para medir tempo de decaimento em polímeros antiestáticos. Nesse método, ele determinou uma boa correlação entre a resistência superficial e o tempo de meia-vida do material. Usando a mesma ideia, foi possível desenvolver o método apresentado nesta tese, aplicado a amostras de tapete e carpetes. Neste método, a caracterização eletrostática de tapetes ou carpetes é realizada também através da medida do tempo de decaimento do potencial eletrostático. Porém, sua ideia principal é que todas as medidas são realizadas dentro de uma câmara especial isenta de umidade, pois este pode influenciar o carregamento das amostras. Dentro desta câmara, as amostras de tapete ou carpete são inicialmente carregadas através de descarga corona, após cessar o carregamento, é medido o seu tempo de decaimento. Um programa computacional especialmente desenvolvido para este fim permite o controle da medição e do processo de carregamento. / When a person rubs his shoes in a rug, his body may be charged with a potential of some thousands of volts in relation to the earth reference. If this person touches a grounded object, a spark can travel between the object and the tip of his finger. The person\'s body acts like a capacitor, and a fast flow of stored static electricity, which is a result of the static loads stored in the body, flows from the body to an object in a smaller potential. Those discharges can cause from small damages, as physical discomfort, to fires in big constructions. ln the attempt to minimize or to eliminate these problems, antiestatic rugs and carpets are used. Many methods have been proposed 10 characterize those products in agreement with the electrostatic characteristics . Among them the recommended methods by the French standard NF G35-025 [Essais des Revêtements de Sol Textiles-Propension à I\'accumulation de Charges Életrostatiques, Méthode d\'essai et spécification, Décembre 1983], prescribe that somebody using special shoes should walk in a rug sample for a long period, and then the electrostatic potential acquired by him is measured using an electrometer. ln this method the real conditions are reproduced, but, it is very expensive and difficult, because it requires an aclimatized room. There are in the literature several studies attempting to devise alternative methods. Taylor [An Instrument goes Measuring Static Dissipation from Materiais, Journal of Electrostatics, (1987) 53-64, Elsevier Science Publishers B. V, Amsterdam-Printed in the Netherlands] developed a meter of charge decline to measure time of decline in antistatic polymers. ln his method, Taylor determined a good correlation between the superficial resistance and the time of stocking-life of the material. Using the same idea, it was possible to develop the method that is presented in this thesis, applied to samples of rugs and carpets. ln this method the electrostatic characterization of rugs or carpets is also accomplished through the measurement of the time of decline of the electrostatic potential. However its main idea is that all the measures are accomplished inside a special camera without humidity, since it can influence the charging of the samples. lnside this camera, the rugs or carpet samples are initially charged using corona discharge, after interrupting the charging, time of decline is measured. A computer program was especially developed for this reason, it allows the control of the measurement and of the charging process.