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Emerging adulthood is a unique developmental period from late adolescence to late 20s during which individuals experience a multitude of developmental transitions and are at an increased risk for internalizing symptoms. Parent emotion socialization in childhood can also contribute to risk for internalizing symptoms and is shaped by parent gender and sociocultural context. Rurality is a sociocultural context that has implications for parenting, but less research has explored how parent emotion socialization varies by rurality. The present study examined maternal and paternal emotion socialization in relation to rurality and emerging adult internalizing symptoms. Participants were 270 emerging adults (18-29 years old; 65.6% female) from a regional university who completed several self-report measures. Maternal and paternal emotion socialization responses did not differ by rurality but evidenced unique associations with emerging adult internalizing symptoms. Rurality did not moderate these associations. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.

Emotional competence is empirically associated with children’s success both socially and academically. Emotion knowledge and emotion regulation, the components of emotional competence, help children navigate interactions with peers and teachers in order to reach their goals while respecting the needs of others. An abundance of research exists on curricula to build social-emotional skills, as well as research on the role parents play in socializing children about emotional competence. However, little research exists on emotion socialization by teachers. Literature on what pre-service teachers learn about emotion socialization and emotional competence is even smaller. This study aims to learn what Early Childhood Education students at a large, urban northeastern university learn about emotional competence and emotion socialization through the use of surveys, interviews, and written reflections on the student teaching experience. A mixed-methods design elicits both breadth and depth of data on the topic. Pre- and post-measures show significant differences in self-efficacy relating to emotion socialization practices, but not knowledge or practices learned through the student teaching experience. Interview data shows pre-service teachers do believe emotion socialization to be part of their teaching role and that they influence the types of emotions felt and expressed by students in the classroom. Results will help improve the student teaching program and help the larger field of early childhood education learn about how to make the student teaching experience as helpful as possible. / Educational Psychology

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Objective:The present study evaluated the effectiveness of a parenting program designed specifically for hyperactive preschoolers. Method: Participants were 31 preschool-aged children whose parents were randomly assigned to a treatment or waitlist group. Parents who were assigned to the treatment group took part in a 14-week parenting program that involved teaching parenting strategies to manage hyperactive and disruptive behavior as well as emotion socialization strategies to increase children's emotion regulation. Results: The present study's findings were mixed. There were significant changes on a number of measures of child functioning and parent behavior for families who took part in the parenting program, but these findings were tempered by several nonsignificant findings. Compared to control families, families who participated in the parenting program evidenced significant changes in mothers' reports of child inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms, observations of mothers' positive parenting and negative affect, and mothers' self-reported verbosity, punitive reactions, and minimizing/discouraging reactions. Moreover, parent training fathers reported decreases in child inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms. However, treatment families did not significantly differ on mothers' ratings of child lability/negativity and internalizing behavior; audiotaped child behavior; or mothers' self-reported overreactivity, laxness, expressive encouragement, and emotion- and problem-focused reactions. Conclusions: Results provide some support for the effectiveness of the parenting program for reducing ADHD symptoms in preschool-aged children.

Recent studies have addressed the importance of identifying determinants of parental emotion socialization (ES) to clarify how and why parents engage in ES practices. Furthermore, emotions occur within cultural contexts. Recent work has drawn attention to the importance of cross-cultural research for developmental science. Consistent with these calls for research, I examined parents' beliefs about emotions and self-construals as two sets of distinct factors guiding parental ES responses in China and the United States (US). Three emotion-related beliefs (manipulation [children can use emotions to manipulate parents]; parental knowledge [parents have to know all about their child's emotions]; autonomy [children can work through emotions on their own]) and two self-construals (independence [view self as unique entity]; interdependence [view self as connected with others]) were highlighted. One hundred seven parents with 7- to 11-year-old children (75 Chinese, 32 US; 90 mothers, 17 fathers) completed online questionnaires in their native language. MANCOVA analyses indicated cultural differences. Compared with Chinese parents, US parents less strongly endorsed beliefs about manipulation, parental knowledge, and autonomy. US parents endorsed more supportive and less nonsupportive responses towards children's emotions than Chinese parents. There was a trend for Chinese parents to endorse more interdependence than independence in self-construals, whereas no within-person difference was found for US parents' endorsement of these two self-construals. For both Chinese and US parents, beliefs about emotions and self-construals were significantly associated with ES responses. Linear regressions showed that parents' stronger manipulation belief was associated with higher nonsupportive responses to positive and negative emotions. Parents with stronger parental knowledge or autonomy beliefs reported more supportive responses to negative emotions and explanations of positive emotions. Stronger belief in parental knowledge was also related to more endorsed encouragement of positive emotions and lower nonsupportive responses to negative emotions. After controlling for the effects of beliefs, parents with higher interdependent self-construal reported more supportive responses to negative emotions and more explanatory responses to positive emotions. Parents who endorsed higher independent self-construal reported more encouraging responses to positive emotions and less nonsupportive responses to negative emotions. Results are discussed in relation to meaning and significance within socio-cultural contexts. / Doctor of Philosophy / Parental emotion socialization (ES) refers to the process through which parents socialize children's social and emotional competence. Parents from different cultures may enact different ES practices. To better clarify the cross-cultural similarities and differences as well as to better understand how and why parents endorse various ES practices, I conducted the current study. I worked with Chinese and US families and examined how parents' beliefs and perceptions of self (self-construal) as guiding factors were associated with parental ES responses to children's emotions. I focused on three beliefs about emotions: manipulation (children can use emotions to manipulate parents); parental knowledge (parents need to know all about their child's emotions); autonomy (children can handle emotions on their own) and two self-construals: independence (view self as unique entity); interdependence (view self as connected with others). One hundred seven parents (75 Chinese, 32 US; 90 mothers, 17 fathers) participated and their children were 7- to 11-year-old. Parents completed online questionnaires in their native language. I found cultural differences in parents' beliefs and ES responses. Compared with Chinese parents, US parents believed less strongly in children using emotions as manipulations, in parents knowing all about their child's emotions, and in children being able to work through emotions on their own. US parents reported more supportive and less nonsupportive responses to children's emotions than Chinese parents. I found no cultural differences in how parents' beliefs and self-construals associated with their ES responses. For both Chinese and US parents, the more strongly they believed children using emotions to manipulate others, the more nonsupportive responses they endorsed towards children's emotions. Parents' stronger beliefs in parents knowing their child's every emotion and in child's own capability of handling emotions were both related to their more supportive and exploratory responses to children's emotions. In terms of the effects of parents' self-construals, the higher parents viewed themselves as connected to others, the more support and explanation they reported in reaction to children's emotions. Meanwhile, the higher parents viewed themselves as unique and independent, the more encouraging and less nonsupportive responses towards children's emotions they reported. Overall, findings contributed to the understanding of parental ES within the cultural context in relation to parents' beliefs about emotions and perceptions of self.

Little is known about how maternal positive affect (PA) relates to maternal patterns of emotion socialization about positive emotions. The current study examined the hypothesis that mothers’ self-reported PA, independent of their negative affect (NA), is associated with increased and more appropriate modeling of verbal and nonverbal expressions of positive emotions in mothers. I examined associations between self-reported maternal PA and behaviors during video-taped discussions of times when the mothers and children were happy in 53 healthy mother-child dyads. These tapes were coded using standard observational coding schemes. Results suggest that mothers with higher ratings of PA, independent of NA, positively predicted levels of observed maternal positive involvement and communication while reminiscing. Maternal PA was unrelated to observed dyadic mutual enjoyment, positive emotion words and teaching during mother-child reminiscing. Results add to the existing literature on positive psychology in important ways. Theoretical implications for understanding positive emotions are discussed.