The lunar space environment is shaped by the interaction between the Moon and the solar wind. In the present thesis, we investigate two aspects of this interaction, namely the interaction between solar wind protons and lunar crustal magnetic anomalies, and the interaction between solar wind protons and lunar regolith. We use particle sensors that were carried onboard the Chandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter to analyze solar wind protons that reflect from the Moon, including protons that capture an electron from the lunar regolith and reflect as energetic neutral atoms of hydrogen. We also employ computer simulations and use a hybrid plasma solver to expand on the results from the satellite measurements. The observations from Chandrayaan-1 reveal that the reflection of solar wind protons from magnetic anomalies is a common phenomenon on the Moon, occurring even at relatively small anomalies that have a lateral extent of less than 100 km. At the largest magnetic anomaly cluster (with a diameter of 1000 km), an average of ~10% of the incoming solar wind protons are reflected to space. Our computer simulations show that these reflected proton streams significantly modify the global lunar plasma environment. The reflected protons can enter the lunar wake and impact the lunar nightside surface. They can also reach far upstream of the Moon and disturb the solar wind flow. In the local environment at a 200 km-scale magnetic anomaly, our simulations show a heated and deflected plasma flow and the formation of regions with reduced or increased proton precipitation. We also observe solar wind protons reflected from the lunar regolith. These proton fluxes are generally lower than those from the magnetic anomalies. We find that the proton reflection efficiency from the regolith varies between ~0.01% and ~1%, in correlation with changes in the solar wind speed. We link this to a velocity dependent charge-exchange process occurring when the particles leave the lunar regolith. Further, we investigate how the properties of the reflected neutral hydrogen atoms depend on the solar wind temperature. We develop a model to describe this dependence, and use this model to study the plasma precipitation on the Moon when it is in the terrestrial magnetosheath. We then use the results from these and other studies, to model solar wind reflection from the surface of the planet Mercury. / Rymdmiljön runt månen formas av den växelverkan som sker mellan månen och solvinden. I den föreliggande avhandlingen undersöker vi två aspekter av denna växerverkan, nämligen växelverkan mellan solvindsprotoner och magnetiserade områden i månskorpan, och växelverkan mellan solvindsprotoner och månens ytdamm. Vi använder oss av partikelsensorer på månsatelliten Chandrayaan-1 för att analysera solvindsprotoner som reflekteras från månen, även de protoner som fångar upp en elektron från ytan och reflekteras som neutrala väteatomer. Vi använder oss också av datorsimuleringar för att bygga vidare på de uppmätta resultaten. Observationerna från Chandrayaan-1 visar att reflektion av solvindsprotoner från magnetiserade områden är ett vanligt förekommande fenomen på månen, som inträffar även vid magnetiseringar som är utbredda över mindre än 100 km. Vid det största magnetiserade området på månen (1000 km i diameter), reflekteras i genomsnitt ~10% av de infallande solvindsprotonerna. Våra datorsimuleringar visar att dessa protonflöden har globala effekter på månens plasmamiljö. De reflekterade protonerna kan nå månens nattsida. De kan också nå långt uppströms om månen och störa solvindsflödet. I den lokala plasmamiljön vid ett magnetiserat område av storleken 200 km visar våra simuleringar ett förändrat solvindsflöde, där det skapas områden som delvis skyddas från solvinden, likväl som områden som utsätts för mer solvind. Vi observerar även solvindsprotoner som reflekterats från ytdammet på månen. Dessa protonflöden är lägre än de från de magnetiska fälten. Reflektionen från ytan varierar mellan ~0.01% och 1% av solvindsflödet, i samband med förändringar i solvindshastigheten. Vi förklarar detta med att partiklarnas laddning bestäms av den hastighet de har när de lämnar måndammet. Vidare undersöker vi hur egenskaperna hos de reflekterade neutrala väteatomerna beror på solvindstemperaturen. Vi skapar en modell för att beskriva sambandet och använder sedan denna modell för att studera hur solvinden faller in mot månens yta när den befinner sig i jordens magnetoskikt, där jordens magnetfält orsakar en upphettning av solvindsflödet. Resultaten från dessa och andra studier använder vi sedan för att modellera solvindsreflektion från planeten Merkurius yta, för jämförelse med framtida observationer.

<p>This thesis deals with the development and calibrations of sensors to measure energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at Mars, Venus, and the Earth. ENAs are formed in charge exchange processes between energetic, singly--charged ions and a cold neutral gas. Since ENAs can travel in long straight trajectories, unaffected by electric or magnetic fields, they can be used to remotely image plasma interactions with neutral atmospheres. ENA instrument techniques have matured over the last decade and ENA images of the Earth's ring current for example, have successfully been analyzed to extract ion distributions and characterize plasma flows and currents in the inner magnetosphere.</p><p>Three different ENA sensors have been developed to image ENAs at Mars, Venus, and the Earth. Two of them, the nearly identical Neutral Particle imagers (NPIs) are on-board the Mars Express and Venus Express spacecraft as a part of the Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms (ASPERA-3 and 4) instruments. The third is the Neutral Atom Detector Unit, NUADU, aboard the TC-2 spacecraft of the Double Star mission. The NPI design is based on a surface reflection technique to measure low energy (~0.3-60 keV) ENAs, while the NUADU instrument is based on a simple design with large geometrical factor and solid state detectors to measure high energy ENAs (~20-300 keV).</p><p>The calibration approach of both NPI sensors were to define the detailed response, including properties such as the angular response function and efficiency of one reference sensor direction then find the relative response of the other sensor directions. Because of the simple geometry of the NUADU instrument, the calibration strategy involved simulations to find the cutoff energy, geometrical factor and angular response. The NUADU sensor head was then calibrated to find the response to particles of different mass and energy. The NPI sensor for the Mars Express mission revealed a so-called priority effect in the sensor that lowers the angular resolution at high detector bias. During the calibration of the Venus Express NPI sensor tests were made which showed that the priority effect is a result of low amplitude (noise) pulses generated in the detector system. The conclusion is that the effect is caused by capacitive couplings between different anode sectors of the sensor. The thresholds on the preamplifiers were set higher on the Venus Express NPI, which removed the priority effect.</p><p>Two of the three ENA experiments, the Double Star NUADU instrument and the Mars Express NPI sensor, have successfully measured ENAs that are briefly described in the thesis. The first ENA measurements at Mars were performed with Mars Express. Initial results from the NPI include measurements of ENAs formed in the Martian magnetosheath and solar wind ENAs penetrating to the nightside of Mars. The first results from NUADU in Earth orbit show the expected ENA emissions from a storm time ring current. Also, together with the HENA instrument on the IMAGE spacecraft, NUADU have produced the first multi-point ENA image of the ring current.</p>

This thesis deals with the development and calibrations of sensors to measure energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at Mars, Venus, and the Earth. ENAs are formed in charge exchange processes between energetic, singly--charged ions and a cold neutral gas. Since ENAs can travel in long straight trajectories, unaffected by electric or magnetic fields, they can be used to remotely image plasma interactions with neutral atmospheres. ENA instrument techniques have matured over the last decade and ENA images of the Earth's ring current for example, have successfully been analyzed to extract ion distributions and characterize plasma flows and currents in the inner magnetosphere. Three different ENA sensors have been developed to image ENAs at Mars, Venus, and the Earth. Two of them, the nearly identical Neutral Particle imagers (NPIs) are on-board the Mars Express and Venus Express spacecraft as a part of the Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms (ASPERA-3 and 4) instruments. The third is the Neutral Atom Detector Unit, NUADU, aboard the TC-2 spacecraft of the Double Star mission. The NPI design is based on a surface reflection technique to measure low energy (~0.3-60 keV) ENAs, while the NUADU instrument is based on a simple design with large geometrical factor and solid state detectors to measure high energy ENAs (~20-300 keV). The calibration approach of both NPI sensors were to define the detailed response, including properties such as the angular response function and efficiency of one reference sensor direction then find the relative response of the other sensor directions. Because of the simple geometry of the NUADU instrument, the calibration strategy involved simulations to find the cutoff energy, geometrical factor and angular response. The NUADU sensor head was then calibrated to find the response to particles of different mass and energy. The NPI sensor for the Mars Express mission revealed a so-called priority effect in the sensor that lowers the angular resolution at high detector bias. During the calibration of the Venus Express NPI sensor tests were made which showed that the priority effect is a result of low amplitude (noise) pulses generated in the detector system. The conclusion is that the effect is caused by capacitive couplings between different anode sectors of the sensor. The thresholds on the preamplifiers were set higher on the Venus Express NPI, which removed the priority effect. Two of the three ENA experiments, the Double Star NUADU instrument and the Mars Express NPI sensor, have successfully measured ENAs that are briefly described in the thesis. The first ENA measurements at Mars were performed with Mars Express. Initial results from the NPI include measurements of ENAs formed in the Martian magnetosheath and solar wind ENAs penetrating to the nightside of Mars. The first results from NUADU in Earth orbit show the expected ENA emissions from a storm time ring current. Also, together with the HENA instrument on the IMAGE spacecraft, NUADU have produced the first multi-point ENA image of the ring current.