The increasing production and usage of engineered nanoparticles has raised concerns about potential ecological and human exposures and the risks these novel materials may pose. Nanoparticles are often manufactured with an organic macromolecular coating, and they will attain further coatings of adsorbed natural organic matter (NOM) in the environment. The overall objective of this thesis is to improve our ability to quantify the effects of adsorbed coatings on nanoparticle fate in the environment. The physicochemical properties of the coating or the adsorbing macromolecule are expected to strongly mediate the surface interactions, and hence the environmental fate, of coated nanoparticles. To this end, this research focuses on assessing a coating characterization method and applying extensive characterization of NOM coatings to enable the development of correlations to predict nanoparticle deposition onto model environmental surfaces and aggregation. The first objective is to assess the applicability of a soft particle electrokinetic modeling approach to characterize adsorbed layer thickness, which contributes to repulsive steric forces that will affect nanoparticle deposition. A statistical analysis determined that high uncertainty in fitted layer thicknesses will limit this approach to thin, low-charged coatings (for which it may be advantageous to typical sizing methods such as dynamic light scattering). Application of this method in experimental studies further confirmed the model limitations in estimating layer thicknesses and the inability of this measurement (and other commonly measured properties) to fully explain nanoparticle deposition behavior. These results demonstrated the need for improved detail and accuracy in coating characterization. The second objective is to correlate the properties of NOM to its effects on gold nanoparticle aggregation, with particular focus on the role of heterogeneity or polydispersity of the NOM molecular weight. Multiple types of NOM collected from representative water bodies and soils were used, both in whole and separated into molecular weight (MW) fractions, and characterized for chemical composition and MW distribution. While average MW of the NOM provided good correlation with aggregation rate, the highest MW components were found to contribute disproportionately in stabilizing nanoparticles against aggregation, highlighting the importance of measuring and accounting for high MW components to explain nanoparticle aggregation. However, an outlier from the MW trend was identified, emphasizing the need for additional characterization (e.g. of reduced sulfur content or the conformation of the adsorbed NOM) to fully explain the effects of NOM on nanoparticle aggregation. Altogether, this research provides novel knowledge that will guide future application of characterization methods to predict attachment processes for coated nanoparticles in the environment.

O carbono, em suas muitas formas distintas, tem sido largamente empregado como material adsorvente, do tratamento de água à tecnologia industrial em virtude de sua boa performance, baixo custo e compatibilidades biológica e ambiental. Nesta tese foi verificada a associação sinérgica entre carvão ativo e nanopartículas superparamagnéticas de óxido de ferro ensejando a exploração entre a capacidade adsortiva e o magnetismo para o desenvolvimento de processos de remoção de contaminantes de meios aquosos e melhorando sua análise por meio de concentração magnética. Para este propósito, nanopartículas magnéticas recobertas com ácidos oleico ou esteárico foram especialmente preparadas e combinadas com carvão ativo em proporções variadas (1, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 % m/m), seguindo rigoroso controle químico. Os materiais de carbono magnetizáveis mantém suas afinidades química e característica porosa do material precursor com alguma diminuição de sua área superficial, embora exibindo uma forte atração por campos magnéticos externos, permitindo sua fácil concentração e remoção. Estes materiais foram extensivamente caracterizados por técnicas como BET, FTIR, XRD, DLS, SEM, TG/DTA, VSM e SQUID. Por conveniência, o compósito a 10 % de nanopartículas de magnetita foi escolhido como o principal a ser utilizado na maioria das aplicações exibindo ampla área superficial (700 m2.g-1), volume e diâmetro médio de poro (0,487 cc.g-1 e 8,5 nm, respectivamente) e uma magnetização de saturação de 5 emu.g-1, com histerese desprezível à temperatura ambiente. Suas características adsorventes foram exploradas com sucesso na captura de corantes orgânicos (pararosanilina e azul de metileno), nitrobenzeno, bisfenol-A e BTEX (benzeno, tolueno, etilbenzeno e o,m,p-xilenos), bem como para íons de metais pesados como Hg(II), Pb(II) e Ag(I) em solução aquosa. Estudos eletroanalíticos foram feitos explorando o efeito de pré-concentração magnética na superfície do eletrodo após realizar estudos de adsorção envolvendo o levantamento de isotermas afim de investigar parâmetros como capacidade adsortiva e constantes de adsorção. Em todos os casos, um elevado aumento de aumento na sensibilidade foi obtido através do confinamento magnético em relação aos métodos convencionais. Desta forma, o emprego do compósito de carbono com nanopartículas de óxido de ferro superparamagnéticas demonstrou ser uma ferramenta poderosa a ser explorada em Química Analítica e Ambiental. / Carbon in many distinct forms has been widely employed as absorbing material in industrial and water technology because of its good performance, low cost and bio/environmental compatibility. In this doctoral thesis, a synergistic association of activated carbon with superparamagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles was carried out, aiming the exploitation of their combined absorption capability and magnetism, for developing new processes of removing contaminants from water and improving their analysis by means of magnetic concentration effect. For this purpose, magnetite nanoparticles coated with stearic or oleic acids were specially prepared and combined with activated carbon, at several proportions (1, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 % m/m), following a rigorous chemical and analytical control. The magnetized carbon materials kept the original porous characteristics and molecular affinity of the original absorber, with some decrease of the active surface area, but exhibiting a strong attraction by the magnetic field, allowing their easy concentration and removal. Such materials were extensively characterized by BET, FTIR, XRD, DLS, SEM, TG/DTA, VSM and SQUID techniques. For convenience, the carbon material containing 10 % of magnetite was elected as principal, exhibiting a surface area of 700 m2 g-1, average volume and porous diameter of 0,487 cm3 g-1 and 8,5 nm, respectively, and a saturation magnetization of 5 emu g-1, with null hysteresis at room temperature. Its absorbing characteristics were successfully explored for the capture of organic dyes (pararosaniline, and methylene blue), bisphenol-A, and BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and o,m,p-xilene), as well as hazardous, heavy metal ions, such as Hg(II), Pb(II) and Ag(I) in aqueous solution. Electroanalytical studies were carried out by exploring the magnetic pre-concentration effect on the electrodes, after performing a detailed adsorption study involving the construction of isotherms, in order to evaluate the equilibrium and mass capacity parameters. In all the cases, a great increase of sensitivity was attained by the magnetic confined method, in relation to the conventional methods. In this way, the use of carbon with superparamagnetic nanoparticles demonstrated a powerful strategy to be explored in environmental and analytical chemistry.

Owing to their unique physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, nanoparticles (NPs) have been used, or are being evaluated for use, in many fields (e.g., personal care and cosmetics, pharmaceutical, energy, electronics, food and textile). However, concerns regarding the environmental and biological implications of NPs are raised alongside the booming nanotechnology industry. Numerous studies on the biological effect of NPs have been done in the last decade, and many mechanisms have been proposed. In brief, mechanisms underlying the adverse biological effect caused by NPs can be summarized as: (i) indirect adverse effect induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by NPs, (ii) indirect adverse effect induced by released toxic ions, and (iii) adverse effect induced by direct interactions of NPs with biological systems. Up to now, most efforts have been focused on the first two mechanisms. In contrast, adverse biological effects induced by direct nano-bio interactions are the least researched. This is largely because of the complexity and lack of suitable techniques for characterizing the nano-bio interface. This dissertation aims at advancing our understanding of the nano-bio interactions leading to the adverse biological effect of NPs. Specifically, it is comprised of three parts. Firstly, because the aggregation of NPs alters particle size and other physicochemical properties of NPs, the property of NPs reaching and interacting with biological cells is very likely different from that of what we feed initially. Consequently, as the first step and an essential prerequisite for understanding the biological effect of NPs, NP aggregation is investigated and models are developed for predicting the stability and the extent of aggregation of NPs. Secondly, interactions between NPs and cell membrane are studied with paramecium as the model cell. Due to the lack of cell wall, the susceptible cell membrane of paramecium is directly exposed to NPs in the medium. The extent and strength of direct nano-cell membrane interaction is evaluated and quantified by calculating the interfacial force/interaction between NPs and cell membrane. A correlation is further established between the nano-cell membrane interaction and the lethal acute toxicity of NPs. We find NPs that have strong association or interaction with the cell membrane tend to induce strong lethal effects. Lastly, we demonstrate systematic experimental approaches based on atomic force microscope (AFM), which allows us to characterize nano-bio interfaces on the single NP and single-molecular level, coupled with modeling approaches to probe the nano-DNA interaction. Using quantum dots (QDs) as a model NP, we have examined, with the novel application of AFM, the NP-to-DNA binding characteristics including binding mechanism, binding kinetics, binding isotherm, and binding specificity. We have further assessed the binding affinity of NPs for DNA by calculating their interaction energy on the basis of the DLVO models. The modeling results of binding affinity are validated by the NP-to-DNA binding images acquired by AFM. The investigation of the relationship between the binding affinity of twelve NPs for DNA with their inhibition effects on DNA replication suggests that strong nano-DNA interactions result in strong adverse genetic effects of NPs. In summary, this dissertation has furthered our understanding of direct nano-bio interactions and their role in the biological effect of NPs. Furthermore, the models developed in this dissertation lay the basis for building an “ultimate” predictive model of biological effects of NPs that takes into account multiple mechanisms and their interactions, which would save a lot of testing costs and time in evaluating the risk of NPs.

O carbono, em suas muitas formas distintas, tem sido largamente empregado como material adsorvente, do tratamento de água à tecnologia industrial em virtude de sua boa performance, baixo custo e compatibilidades biológica e ambiental. Nesta tese foi verificada a associação sinérgica entre carvão ativo e nanopartículas superparamagnéticas de óxido de ferro ensejando a exploração entre a capacidade adsortiva e o magnetismo para o desenvolvimento de processos de remoção de contaminantes de meios aquosos e melhorando sua análise por meio de concentração magnética. Para este propósito, nanopartículas magnéticas recobertas com ácidos oleico ou esteárico foram especialmente preparadas e combinadas com carvão ativo em proporções variadas (1, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 % m/m), seguindo rigoroso controle químico. Os materiais de carbono magnetizáveis mantém suas afinidades química e característica porosa do material precursor com alguma diminuição de sua área superficial, embora exibindo uma forte atração por campos magnéticos externos, permitindo sua fácil concentração e remoção. Estes materiais foram extensivamente caracterizados por técnicas como BET, FTIR, XRD, DLS, SEM, TG/DTA, VSM e SQUID. Por conveniência, o compósito a 10 % de nanopartículas de magnetita foi escolhido como o principal a ser utilizado na maioria das aplicações exibindo ampla área superficial (700 m2.g-1), volume e diâmetro médio de poro (0,487 cc.g-1 e 8,5 nm, respectivamente) e uma magnetização de saturação de 5 emu.g-1, com histerese desprezível à temperatura ambiente. Suas características adsorventes foram exploradas com sucesso na captura de corantes orgânicos (pararosanilina e azul de metileno), nitrobenzeno, bisfenol-A e BTEX (benzeno, tolueno, etilbenzeno e o,m,p-xilenos), bem como para íons de metais pesados como Hg(II), Pb(II) e Ag(I) em solução aquosa. Estudos eletroanalíticos foram feitos explorando o efeito de pré-concentração magnética na superfície do eletrodo após realizar estudos de adsorção envolvendo o levantamento de isotermas afim de investigar parâmetros como capacidade adsortiva e constantes de adsorção. Em todos os casos, um elevado aumento de aumento na sensibilidade foi obtido através do confinamento magnético em relação aos métodos convencionais. Desta forma, o emprego do compósito de carbono com nanopartículas de óxido de ferro superparamagnéticas demonstrou ser uma ferramenta poderosa a ser explorada em Química Analítica e Ambiental. / Carbon in many distinct forms has been widely employed as absorbing material in industrial and water technology because of its good performance, low cost and bio/environmental compatibility. In this doctoral thesis, a synergistic association of activated carbon with superparamagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles was carried out, aiming the exploitation of their combined absorption capability and magnetism, for developing new processes of removing contaminants from water and improving their analysis by means of magnetic concentration effect. For this purpose, magnetite nanoparticles coated with stearic or oleic acids were specially prepared and combined with activated carbon, at several proportions (1, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 % m/m), following a rigorous chemical and analytical control. The magnetized carbon materials kept the original porous characteristics and molecular affinity of the original absorber, with some decrease of the active surface area, but exhibiting a strong attraction by the magnetic field, allowing their easy concentration and removal. Such materials were extensively characterized by BET, FTIR, XRD, DLS, SEM, TG/DTA, VSM and SQUID techniques. For convenience, the carbon material containing 10 % of magnetite was elected as principal, exhibiting a surface area of 700 m2 g-1, average volume and porous diameter of 0,487 cm3 g-1 and 8,5 nm, respectively, and a saturation magnetization of 5 emu g-1, with null hysteresis at room temperature. Its absorbing characteristics were successfully explored for the capture of organic dyes (pararosaniline, and methylene blue), bisphenol-A, and BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and o,m,p-xilene), as well as hazardous, heavy metal ions, such as Hg(II), Pb(II) and Ag(I) in aqueous solution. Electroanalytical studies were carried out by exploring the magnetic pre-concentration effect on the electrodes, after performing a detailed adsorption study involving the construction of isotherms, in order to evaluate the equilibrium and mass capacity parameters. In all the cases, a great increase of sensitivity was attained by the magnetic confined method, in relation to the conventional methods. In this way, the use of carbon with superparamagnetic nanoparticles demonstrated a powerful strategy to be explored in environmental and analytical chemistry.

Many environmental compartments are acknowledged transmission routes for infectious diseases, antibiotic resistance, and anthropogenic pollution. The need for environmental sensing has consistently been stressed as a means to minimize public health threats caused by such contaminants. Many analytical detection techniques have been developed and applied for environmental sensing. However, these techniques are often reliant upon centralized facilities and require intensive resources. For these reasons their use can be challenging under resource-constrained conditions characterized by poor water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services. In this dissertation, we developed biotechnology- and/or nanotechnology-advanced analytical tools for environmental sensing that have potential for future application in regions with poor WASH services. First, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and nanopore sequencing were applied to develop assays for the detection of SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, in wastewater samples. Second, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) was applied for environmental detection of a range of analytes. Gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-based SERS substrates were fabricated by droplet evaporation-induced aggregation on a hydrophobic substrate. These SERS substrates were then applied for the detection of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and other environmental contaminants (e.g., dye or hydrophobic organic contaminants). In a separate study, Au nanostructured SERS substrates were fabricated and applied for pH sensing in a range of environmental media. Finally, the environmental impact of an AuNP-based colorimetric detection assay was assessed via life cycle assessment. / Doctor of Philosophy / Environmental sensing is an important means to intervene against public health threats of infectious diseases and environmental contaminants. However, currently available analytical tools for environmental samples often require intensive resources that are not available in low- and middle-income countries. In this dissertation, we developed biotechnology and/or nanotechnology advanced analytical tools for environmental sensing that have potential future application applied under resource-constrained conditions. First, we applied loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and nanopore sequencing to develop detection assays for SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, in wastewater samples. Second, we applied surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) to develop assays for environmental analytes. We fabricated SERS substrates by evaporation-induced aggregation of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) on a hydrophobic substrate and applied these for the detection of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and other environmental contaminants. In addition, Au nanostructured SERS substrates were fabricated and applied for pH sensing in a range of environmental media. Finally, we used life cycle assessment to quantitatively evaluate the environmental impacts of an AuNP-based sensing applications.