abstract: The occurrence of micro-and nanoplastic (MNP) debris in the environment is a research area of considerable public health concern. Various combinations of methods for extraction, isolation, and quantification of MNP have been applied but literature studies evaluating the appropriateness and efficacy of these protocols are lacking. A meta-analysis of the literature (n=134; years 2010-2017) was conducted to inventory and assess the appropriateness of methodologies employed. Some 30.6% of studies employed visual identification only, which carried a calculated misidentification error of 25.8-74.2%. An additional 6.7% of studies reported counts for particles smaller than the cutoff value of the selected collection pore size, and 9.7% of studies utilized extraction solution densities which exclude some of the polymers commonly occurring in the environments investigated. A composite value of data vulnerability of 43.3% was determined for the sample, indicating considerable weaknesses in the robustness of information available on MNP occurrence and type. Additionally, the oxidizing solutions documented in the literature frequently were deemed unsuccessful in removing interfering organic matter. Whereas nanoplastics measuring <1 µm in diameter are likely principal drivers of health risk, polymer fragments reported on in the literature are much larger, measuring 10+ µm in diameter due to lack of standardized methods. Thus, current inventories of MNP in the environmental MNP feature data quality concerns that should be addressed moving forward by using more robust and standardized techniques for sampling, processing and polymer identification to improve data quality and avoid the risk of misclassification. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering 2018

Although arsenic is ubiquitous in the environment, certain forms of arsenic are added deliberately in ever increasing quantities. The addition of large quantities of the trivalent inorganic form (arsenite) could pose a serious hazard because of the toxicity of this form explicable in terms of its action of sulfhydryl containing enzymes and/or coenzymes. In the environment B.rsenite is rapidly converted to arsenate (the pentavalent inorganic form). Since a biological explanation for the oxidation of arsenite to arsenate was available only for cattle dips (a unique environment), this study was undertaken to examine sewage for the presence of arsenite oxidizing bacteria. The isolation of bacteria capable of arsenite oxidation would allow a study of cultural and physiological properties and thus provide information useful in making rational decisions regarding the continued use of inorganic arsenicals as pesticides; as well as elucidating one segment of the arsenic cycle. Thirty-four different strains of arsenite oxidizing pseudomonads were isolated from sewage and classified into two major groups, Pseudomonas fluorescens-arsenoxydans and Pseudomonas acidovorans-arsenoxydans, with three and four ecotypes in each group. One particularily rapid arsenite oxidizing strain (designated Pseudomonas acidovorans-arsenoxydans YE56) was extensively studied. A minimal, defined medium was used to study the relationship of temperature, pH, aeration and nutrition to growth of this organism versus the ability of the organism to convert arsenite to arsenate under the same conditions. The conversion of arsenite to arsenate in YE56 was shown to be due to the appearance at stationary phase of an enzyme and/or component of the electron transport system when the organism is grown in chemically defined medium. In contrast, induction of the arsenite oxidizing system occurs in late exponential growth phase when the organism is grown in a rich medium. Thus, even though cell populations may never reach stationary phase in sewage, the ability of organisms to oxidize arsenite is probably constant. No energy could be detected from the oxidation of arsenite as measured by increase in growth rate or total cell yield. The adaptability of this organism to the changing environmental conditions of a sewage plant helps explain the findings that pseudomonads are the predominant species in sewage. A simple, unambiguous method for the separation of arsenite, arsenate and phosphate, using a combination of thin layer chromatography and paper chromatography, is described which makes it possible for investigators to define arsenic determinations to include the form (organic or inorganic), oxidation state (trivalent or pentavalent) and the quantity present in the samples.

This thesis validates the Science Laboratory Environment Inventory for the first time in a field based environmental setting using a water quality-monitoring program within a girls' high school and compares the cognitive achievement of students in the water quality-monitoring school with those in non-water quality-monitoring schools. The psychosocial learning dimensions of the water quality-monitoring program are assessed using a modified form of the Science Laboratory Environment Inventory.The results indicate that students involved in the water quality-monitoring school were more homogenous and ranked higher in their cognitive achievement and transferability of concepts than students in the non-water quality-monitoring schools. Pre and post testing together with anecdotal information affirmed that there was a direct association between the quantitative results and qualitative information in relation to the learning dimension scales of the Science Laboratory Environment Inventory.Comparisons were made between similar water environmental programs in different countries and the water quality-monitoring school program results. The use of skills and constructivist techniques indicates that the water quality-monitoring program together with real life problem solving work is an effective method for improving science learning.

The feed production cost in tilapia diets is driven by the prices of its ingredients such as fishmeal (FM) and soybean meal (SBM). Fishmeal and soymeal combined with other ingredients provides fish with the nutrients required for growth and sustaining life. Soybean meal is used as an alternative to fishmeal, but prices for this traditional ingredient have increased significantly in recent years as a result of high market demand from other industries. Consequently, there has been an increase interest by tilapia nutritionists and feed manufacturers to find less expensive, alternative feedstuffs for use in tilapia diets. Camelina (Camelina sativa) is an oil seed crop grown in higher latitudes especially along the US - Canada border, northern China and northern Europe. Camelina after removal of most of the edible oil has been proposed as a fish feed ingredient. A sixty-day feeding trial was conducted and diets were formulated to contain various levels of camelina inclusion (0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%) for the "camelina meal" while the "camelina oil" was formulated to contain one level (4.7%) of oil and was divided as "raw" and 4.7 "wash". The results indicated that that fishes fed diets containing camelina ingredients had growth performance and feed utilization results that were similar to fish fed the commercial diet (P>0.05). There were significant differences (P<0.05) for body organ indices and body composition. The 15% camelina meal diet was the lowest cost experimental diet per kilogram gain and therefore, this alternative ingredient might be a potential replacement for soymeal in a more cost effective feed formulation. The fatty acid composition of tilapia fillets was also analyzed at the end of the feeding trial. The inclusion of camelina meal and oil in tilapia diets resulted in significant increases in the Omega-3/Omega-6 ratio in fillets when compared to the control. The 15% camelina meal provided the best results of the experimental diets yielding significantly higher polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and lower saturated fatty aid (SFA) than the control diet. On a commercial scale, tilapia commercial feeds differ in both formulated nutrient levels and ingredient composition. In intensive system culture, natural food is limited making it important that all nutrients are supplied through a complete pelleted diet. An advantage to feeding a pelleted diet is that the pellet-type feed enables the farmers, feed formulators and manufactures to design a diet that provides an optimal nutritional mix for tilapia. Precise levels in the protein and lipid percentages of tilapia diets can reduce feed costs and also reduce the amount of underutilized protein and lipids stored as fat in tilapia. Feed comprises of over 60% of the variable cost in the intensive aquaculture operation; if feed prices were to increase, it would be a substantial amount for tilapia producers to absorb. Therefore an improved diet formulation designed for tilapia can increase profitability. Results indicated that the experimental diets (28% Crude Protein (CP)-Amino Acid (AA), 28% CP and 40% CP) performed similar to the control diet (32% CP) as it relates to fish growth. The experiment conducted on a commercial scale at an operating farm found that feeding tilapia the lowest protein level diets (28% CP) resulted in higher biomass gain per raceway, biomass gain per fish and significantly higher protein efficiency ratio (PER) when compared to the control diet (32% CP). The 28% CP diet also had the second best FCR value and most importantly higher returns based on its FCR when compared to the control diet (32% CP).

Every country, nation and continent across the world has its own history. That history could be bad or good, according to what happened in that country or continent. Thus, the history of many countries and continents across the world was characterized by internal conflicts, quarrels, disputes, aggressions, wars etc..among its population or by external conflicts or wars against other countries. The impact and consequences of these conflicts and wars were so many and were mostly negative. Indeed, the African continent especially the great lake region has experienced up to now internal and external conflicts and wars. These repetitive internal and external conflicts and wars have negative impacts on the development of those countries. For example Burundi has internal conflicts between Tutsi and Hutu and is involved in an external conflict (war) in the Democratic Republic of Congo (D.R.C). Uganda is also fighting against the rebels in the North and it is also fighting in the D.R.C. Thus, Rwanda as a country located in Africa, moreover situated in the great lake region has not escaped the internal and external conflict and wars. The history of Rwanda is characterized by different wars since the time of its expansion up to the recent different ethnic wars (1959 , 1960, 1962, 1963, 67, 73 and the genocide of 1994) . The impact of these repetitive wars especially the genocide on Rwanda's socio-economic, cultural, administrative, political, development was so wide and negative. The researcher's contribution through this research consisted in identifying what the impact of national unity has had on sustainable development in Rwanda after seven years in power of the so-called "government of national unity" . Rwandan politicians, the ordinary population or friends of Rwandans together should stand up to fight for building and consolidating the national unity of Rwanda. This research had aimed to identify and to clarify what impact national unity in Rwanda has had on sustainable development, after the genocide of 1994. The research had also as specific objectives to: * Verify if there is national unity in Rwanda; * Identify the different factors that influence national unity in Rwanda; * Verify if the Rwandan administrative system allows sustainable Development; * Identify the factors that influence sustainable development in Rwanda; * Identify the impact that national unity has on sustainable development in Rwanda; *Propose recommendations. This study also aimed to answer four complementary questions not isolated variables. Each allowed one to explain the other and vice versa. These questions are: • Is there national unity present in Rwanda? • Which basic factors for national unity were in Rwanda? • Does the Rwandan administrative system allow sustainable development? • What were the factors in favour of sustainable development present in Rwanda? • What was the impact of national unity on sustainable development present in Rwanda? However, the probable answers to the above questions constitute the hypotheses of the research. These are as follows: • There is a unity among Rwandans. • Rwandan national unity is influenced by political, social, economic and demographic factors. • The Rwandan administrative system allows sustainable development. • The democratic state, the state based on the rule of law, media freedom and the people's participation in national planning are the factors that influence sustainable development positively; • The impact of national unity on sustainable development in Rwanda is measured by the improvement or positive social, economic and political change that can be noticed in Rwanda after the genocide of 1994. • National security, peace, good governance, popular education are the other ingredients for sustainable development in Rwandan. For the methodological framework, the researcher used different methods and techniques. So far, historico-comparative, systemic, structural-functionalist and dialectic methods have been used. Documentary research and investigation (enquiry) by questionnaire and interviews with interview-guide have been used as techniques for collecting data in the field. All interviews were tape recorded. The research is delimited in space and time. In space, the study is limited to the country of Rwanda. In time the delimitation of the study starts from 1994 (after the genocide) up to now. However, running the research all over the country was quite impossible, because of the lack of money and time. So far the representative sample of politicians, the military, journalists, civil and public societies and the ordinary people within five provinces have been chosen as a sample and were taken as the respondents. In this research, all objectives were reached and hypotheses accepted or confirmed. The theoretical framework of the research explored precisely the theme of national unity for sustainable development in general and in Rwanda in particular. The first part of the study is composed of the general introduction, methodology, literature review and the theoretical framework. The literature review defines different concepts and key words relative to unity and sustainable development that will be used in the research. It gives the sources, typologies and forms of conflicts, defines wars and their impact, typology of violence, peace, sustainable development and the issues of unity and development in Rwanda. The theoretical framework defines different theories of conflict, cohesion, democratic peace and development. The second part of the study concerns the exploration of the topic "The impacts of national unity on sustainable development in Rwanda". Done within a sociological framework, the study has reached sufficient results. Regarding the hypotheses, which are subject to verification, the responses from all sampled provinces are in agreement and therefore confirm the hypotheses. Regarding the hypothesis of the need for a "democratic state, state based on the rule of law, media freedom and the participation of people in national planning are imperative for sustainable development"; this was confirmed by 64,4% of the politicians, 72,4% of representatives of the military, journalists, civil and public societies and 63,5% of the ordinary population. The respondents stated that presently Rwanda is slowly becoming a democratic state, with the application of the rule of law and media freedom. However, they also mentioned that peoples' participation in national planning is still at the lower stage. All respondents confirmed that Rwandan national unity facilitates, promotes and encourages the bilateral collaboration between people, between people and authorities and between authorities themselves. The involvement and participation of the people in national planning and protection of national developmental project for future generation; lead to sustainable development. They also confirmed that the Rwandan national unity has improved and influenced positively Rwandan social, economic and political systems. Lastly, good governance, security, peace, unity and popular education were also cited as the other ingredients of national unity and sustainable development. From this study one can see that national unity in Rwanda has a positive impact on sustainable development, and all factors have played their role. The consequences of Rwandan conflicts are: 1. Social; 2. Economic; 3. Political; 4. Judicial. Indeed, after conducting this research, the researcher acquired a technical experience about dealing with people, and authorities. The researcher has verified that the quantitative (with questionnaire) technique that was used, reached limited results. With direct questions that held different possibilities of responses, the respondents had a tendency to give suggested responses, which responses are not often in correspondence with what they feel exactly. However, with the qualitative research (direct interviews with a tape recorder) and the researcher's experience of being a Rwandan who had lived in the country before, during and after the genocide allowed one to collect different information that allowed one to verify the hypothesis. That experience allowed the researcher to collect rich and viable information on the impact of national unity on sustainable development in Rwanda. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Durban-Westville, 2002.

Rational thought has dominated Western knowledge structures and systems for many centuries; our instinctual natures have largely been repressed. The purpose of this study is to find out what my bodymind is telling me about how to live in this world. I use arts based methodology to explore how I experience the place in which I live, to find my voice and to navigate through liminal spaces. As I spent time in the natural environment, I increasingly became more aware of my body and of the many animate beings with which I share this place. If we can understand/know/experience the processes by which we became separate from our instinctual natures, then there might be hope to bring ourselves back to the knowledge that we belong and are a part of all of creation. The website is located at http://www.apprenticeshipinnature.com

Increasingly in the Canadian North, developers engage in two parallel processes with no formal connection: the preparation of environmental assessments for public regulatory review; and the establishment of private negotiated agreements with Aboriginal communities. This uncoordinated system frustrates developers, communities, and regulators. While some assert that the public has no right to be concerned with private agreements, environmental assessments are conducted assuming these agreements will be signed. Indeed, overlap exists and some of it is problematic. For instance, some decision-makers interpret signed negotiated agreements as landowner ‘consent’ and look for signed agreements before issuing approvals. Opportunities, however, exist to improve this situation through use of integrative and iterative processes (whereby outputs from one inform the other) featuring more flexible timing and greater government involvement in the determination of select benefits. While such a system may maximise the public good, it is unclear if it will satisfy industry and Aboriginal stakeholders.

Nearly half of the world's population lives in tropical and temperate climates where they may be at risk from one or more vector borne diseases. Approximately 2.1 billion people, living in more than 100 countries are at risk from malaria. While the malaria situation has improved in some places, the overall prevalence in Africa, Asia and the Americas continues to deteriorate. This has led nations, institutions, organisations and agencies including the World Health Organisation to call for development of new and innovative approaches to its surveillance and control. In nature, maintenance of malaria transmission involves a complex interaction between the mosquito vector, the human host, the disease organism, and both the internal and external environments. An understanding of this complex relationship is the key to the prevention, control and eventual eradication of malaria. Malaria prevention and control programmes do not only have to be based on sound knowledge of how these factors interrelate, but also on an application of the political will of the concerned authorities. This study attempts to identify some determinants of malaria and to characterise it in epidemiological zones in Zambia. The study aims at contributing to the body of knowledge that would support implementation of an evidence-based national malaria programme. This study has come at an opportune time when there is renewed focus on malaria prevention and control globally. It is hoped that these aspects of the malaria programme in Zambia will not have to be rewritten in the foreseeable future, instead will be improved upon in order to progress to the delivery of quality assured malaria services as close to the family as possible based on the principles of community-health partnerships. The study is presented in a series of chapters; each developed as a follow up to the previous one and forms a bridge to the next. In this way, it enables the reader to build a relatively complete picture of the malaria situation in the country. However, some repetitions could not be avoided with regard to descriptions of study sites. In the chapters dealing with health systems and quantification of malaria risk, the country (Zambia) is taken as the study site. The remaining sections are based on specific sites, selected on the basis of their representing different aspects of the malaria situation in the country. Mapping of households and other referral points provided the basis upon which a Malaria Information System would in future be built. One of the two study sites was special because most of the previously conducted malaria research in Zambia has been conducted at this site. While the other was not only new in terms of malaria research, it also represented locations in the high rainfall zone in Zambia. The introductory chapter sets out the general principles of Geographical Information System (GIS), malariology, entomology, and health systems. The chapter reviews the current global burden of malaria including its implications for economic development of endemic subSaharan African countries, and discusses progress made in the light of drug and insecticide resistance and the changing global weather patterns. This section examines the position of the African continent in relation to the global malaria eradication era and the possible reasons why it was excluded from the global malaria eradication campaign of 1956-1969. It goes on to analyse new obstacles being faced in rejuvenating global interest in malaria programmes, starting with Primary Health Care through to the principles of Roll Back Malaria (RBM). It also emphasizes special Africa-specific initiatives related to malaria, such as the MARA/ARMA collaboration which (through the use of GIS) is providing a basis for evidence-based decision making. The fist chapter deals with the historical aspects of malaria control in Zambia. It traces how malaria was successfully controlled over a period of 46 years. It starts with a rural set up where copper mineral deposits were discovered. From there it traces the history of malaria control spanning almost eight decades to the present day. It outlines the major milestones in both the malaria programme and in the political history of the country; from a British protectorate , through Federation to the present day nation, Zambia. The chapter demonstrates how malaria can be controlled in an intense transmission situation, using a combination of simple and relatively cost-effective interventions. It also demonstrates that political will is an essential element to disease control. The second chapter examines the role of health systems in the delivery of quality, efficient and cost-effective services to the population. It examines the adequacy of health services in the light of time-limited Roll Back Malaria goals, according to the Abuja Declaration of 2000. This chapter analyses the capacity of the local health system to deliver on its health vision of taking quality assured health services (Malaria services) as close to the family as possible. Together, these goals are examined in terms of population accessing the facilities within 30 minutes' walking distance. Chapter three focuses on identifying factors that facilitate or hinder households acquiring and using Insecticide Treated Nets (ITNs) in the same locality. Specifically, distance of households to some reference points is examined. Also the effects of social, economic and educational status of heads of households are analysed. Together all parameters are analysed statistically to isolate the important reasons why some homes acquire ITNs while others do not. The study concludes with an analysis of the importance of ITN s in averting malaria among users. Some anecdotal evidence resented on the value of ITN s in reducing malaria incidence in the general population is presented. GIS is employed in the fourth chapter to produce a malaria endemicity risk map for the country. It employs population Plasmodjum faldparum infection rates. It proposes stratification and compares it with existing expert opinions and the climate-based Fuzzy Logic predictive model. The resultant malaria risk map is verified against existing maps and expert opinions. The chapter then discusses application for local decision making on policy and action. Chapter number five is dedicated to identifying and studying the bionomics of malaria vectors at two sites. It reviews existing literature on this subject, from 1929 to date. It identifies possible malaria vectors, their behaviour and ecology at two sites representing two extreme situations of malaria endemicity in the country. The combination of Anopheles vector densities and their reliance on temperature and rainfall are analysed and the implications discussed. The chapter also looks at possible ways forward for the country in the light of the paucity of information in this respect. P. faldparum infection rates are estimated together with their entomological inoculation rates and possible implications for malaria transmission potential. The final section (chapter six), highlights the major lessons and their implications for global goals and local health policies. It also outlines the way forward chapter by chapter. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Sea level rise and coastal erosion are two processes which may result in major problems for coastal cities around the world. This is particularly true for Southern and Eastern African cities as they struggle to meet their developmental challenges in addition to sea level rise and coastal erosion. This thesis focuses on three main areas, the analysis of the rates of sea level from tide gauges in the region, the extent of wave run-up on the beach and the development of a simple technical and management framework that managers can apply to assess coastal hazards. The rates of sea level rise in the region vary, Zanzibar, Tanzania reflects a falling sea level at -3:64 plus minus 1:62 mm per year while the highest rate of sea level rise at Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territories is +4:35 plus minus 7:61 mm per year. The rate of sea level rise are dependent on the complex interactions of vertical crustal movements, barometric pressure changes, and the warm Agulhas and cooler Benguela currents. Wave run-up is an indicator of the hazard zone. A number of international wave run-up models were assessed for use in this region and were found to be unsuitable. A new wave run-up model was developed which uses the bathymetric profile as opposed to the beach slope in predicting wave run-up. This model uses the equation Rx H0 = C S2=3, where Rx is the wave run-up height above Still Water Level, H0 is the significant wave height at the closure depth, C is dimensionless coefficient where median values are described by C ' 7:5, S is a representative nearshore slope (S = (hc=xh)). hc is the closure depth and xh the horizontal distance from the waters edge to the closure depth. An assessment of the impacts of sea level rise and wave run-up was undertaken based on a detailed case study of the Durban coastline. The results were incorporated into a standalone freeware viewer tool enabling this information to be accessible to planners, decision makers and the general public. The research has identifed several types of shoreline that are vulnerable to coastal erosion, sea level rise and extreme wave events. Recommendations as to what adaptation measures could be undertaken for the different beach types are proposed. With this information coastal managers and decision makers charged with managing shorelines can take the first step in understanding and adapting into the future. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2012.

This research investigates the potential impacts that a change in land-use to plantation forestry from an area of extensive I intensive agriculture has on helmeted guineafowl Numida meleagris populations. A comprehensive literature review revealed that the likely limiting factors for guineafowl in plantation forestry areas include the age of plantation, proportion of home range planted to timber and the availability of winter forage species. Initially the process of planting creates a disturbance that encourages favourable weed and grass species for guineafowl that provide winter forage and suitable groundcover. Up to five years since planting, habitat conditions are favourable and guineafowl populations increase. After five years, the shading effects from the Pinus spp. results in a decrease in species richness of the understorey vegetation as well as a decrease in the abundance of crucial winter species such as Cyperus esculentus. As a result populations of guineafowl start to decline. Guineafowl populations that have plantations older than ten years within their home range need to have diets supplemented by grain maize, or a suitable grain substitute, unless there is adequate unplanted area to meet their nutritional needs. The rationale for this study originates through a mixed response in growth rates of guineafowl flocks observed in the study area. The study-site for this research is North East Cape Forests, near the town of Ugie. Land-use in this area was an extensive beef and sheep grazing farmland. Up until recently, much of the area has been transformed into plantation forestry, planted to predominantly Pinus species. The effect of a change in land-use to plantation forestry on guineafowl populations is largely unknown and this research therefore presents the first attempt to gain an understanding of how plantation forestry can impact on guineafowl populations. This research forms the final component to the degree of Master of Environment and Development: Protected Area Management. It is a mini-dissertation with an expected duration of six months. The research has been written up as two separate components. Component A includes a study of the literature and methods used in the dissertation. Component B presents the findings of the research with conclusions and recommendations. Component B has been written and formatted for submission according to the standards required by the South African Journal of Wildlife Research. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.