Bibliography: leaves 124-128. / The current mono-crop farming practices in the Namibian resettlement farms . there were visited are unsustainable due to soil nutrient, structure and eventually texture destruction. Furthermore, the aridity of Namibia makes crop and livestock farming difficult. Permanent agriculture (permaculture) is a way of living sustainably in the environment and it is proposed as an alternative farming method for the mostly poor and illiterate settlers on resettlement farms. It emphasises self-reliance on basic needs and the creation of artificial ecosystems from which nutrition and infrastructure can be attained in a sustainable manner without exploiting or polluting the environment. Permaculture is not an instant solution but, a long-term sustainable alternative to current agricultural practices in semi-arid and arid areas of Namibia.

Includes bibliographies. / Land degradation has been recognised as a major economic, social and environmental problem, with more severity in arid and semi-arid regions of Africa. Throughout the dryland regions of Africa natural resources are deteriorating at an accelerating pace. This ecological degradation is caused by overexploitation of resources, and severely undermines Africa's economic future which is largely dependent on agriculture. Amongst the main factors contributing to land degradation in drylands are human actions that ignore the resilience limits of drylands. The ecology of drylands requires land uses that allow flexibility and mobility rather than imposing stability. During the last century, technology and cultural changes have altered the pattern of exploitation of arid and semi-arid areas. Most often the changes are driven by economic needs or national governments policies. Governments tend to make decisions, even if well intended, without prior assessments of the environmental suitability of the intended sites. In most dryland regions the tendency has been towards development of permanent settlements in under-utilised areas leading to increases in population densities beyond the areas' ecological capacity. The result has been overutilisation of natural resources particularly around available water points. This has in turn led to accelerated ecological and cultural decline, and has enhanced the process of land degradation. This dissertation provides a theoretical framework of ecological characteristics and the socio-economic adaptations of dryland environments. The factors contributing to land degradation in arid and semi-arid lands are examined. Examples are drawn from a resettlement programme and the subsequent provision of boreholes in a semi-arid area in Gam, Namibia. The dissertation specifically seeks to examine the Government of Namibia's political decision on a resettlement programme in Gam and evaluate the impacts of resettlement on ecological and socio-economic variables in Gam.

This research studies the characteristic features of shifting paradigms in South African Water legislation over the past hundred years and aligns these changes in legislation with established world views in water resource management. A comparative analysis is used to describe and compare how changes in South African water legislation over the past century have changed water resource management paradigm and vice versa. Three distinct legislative periods are explored within South African water law. The first period from 1912 to 1955 was dominated by the Irrigation and Conservation of Waters Act of 1912 which favoured the agri-industrial and minority landowners. The second period is recognised as the pre-modernism and industrial modernism as paradigms that are closely aligned to the earliest national water legislation. It is characterised by the advancement of the hydraulic mission and growing demand for water resources. The third phase is the National Water Act which transformed water resource management in South Africa. It represents a radical shift in legislation from the dominant paradigm in South Africa and provides one of strongest features indicating that legislation, along with political will, is the major driver and enabler in contributing towards change in water resource management. In South Africa, the paradigm shift in water resource management is the direct result of legislative influence driven by a quest to emphasise the need for social justice and equity in order to redress an unjust Apartheid system.

Summary in English. / Bibliography: leaves 70-75. / Recent research on the platinum-group elements (PGE) has shown increased concentrations in environmental samples, probably as a result of the widespread use of PGE (Pt, Pd and Rh in particular) as catalysts in the chemical and car industry. Most of the recent research on PGE focuses on the analysis of concentrations in environmental samples exposed to anthropogenic sources of PGE, but there are very few studies that have investigated sorption behaviour of PGE in soils.

Includes bibliographical references. / South Africa’s environmental resources are in serious decline, despite the constitutional environmental right, and multiple environmental protection laws. A predominant reason for this is that the criminal sanction is the default method of environmental enforcement. Even if prosecutors succeed in proving guilt beyond reasonable doubt, the fines imposed are too low to deter environmental violations. This dissertation proposes the introduction of an administrative penalty system into SA environmental law, as this system has had positive compliance impacts in numerous jurisdictions. Administrative penalties in the Netherlands and United Kingdom (the roots of SA’s civil and common law systems, respectively) are evaluated to identify best practices for administrative penalties. In SA’s environmental regime, there is an ‘administrative fine’ contained in section 24G of the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998. This is not a true administrative penalty, nor does it comply with the recommended best practices. Section 24G should either be deleted or substantially improved to meet its obligation of protecting the environment. Given the significant potential of administrative penalties to improve environmental compliance and enforcement, practical suggestions are made regarding their introduction into SA environmental law as a means to halt the current widespread non-compliance with environmental legislation.

Planning law has a significant role to play in facilitating and governing development within a country. In South Africa, a shift has occurred from the utilisation of planning laws to regulating development, to facilitating it. A key area of this legal discipline is spatial planning, which determines the ideal utilisation and allocation of an area for certain land uses. The history of spatial planning in South Africa, and more specifically in the Western Cape, is an interesting one as the planning system that exists is fragmented and fraught with confusion. This has resulted in issues, confusion and conflicts which has resulted in numerous court cases. Previous attempts to reform the planning regime have proven to be somewhat unsuccessful as inherent challenges persist whilst new challenges have arisen. Prior to the introduction of the Constitution, spatial planning was utilised to promote Apartheid ideologies. In 1994 South Africa entered into a democratic era, entrenching equal rights and subjecting all laws to the Constitution. This had hefty impetus for spatial planning and its instruments which, to a large extent, were racially biased and therefore became unconstitutional. The legal regime governing spatial planning was tasked with addressing the ills of apartheid and simultaneously striving towards the goal of sustainable development. Issues and challenges have arisen, which have resulted in a fragmented and incoherent planning dispensation. These challenges and issues include the persistence of old order planning legislation and sector policies with activities operating parallel to the planning discipline. Consequently, there is overlap and confusion with regard to the purpose and legal status of spatial planning instruments. To address this at the national sphere, in 2013 contemporary planning reform was embarked upon, with the enactment of Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act 16 of 2013 (SPLUMA). In light of recent planning reform triggered by the commencement of SPLUMA, the aim of this dissertation is to determine if SPLUMA provides a more coherent legal regime governing spatial planning in South Africa. This is pursued by understanding the role spatial planning has had in South Africa, by determining the nature, scope and purpose that spatial planning under the legal regime prior to SPLUMA. During Apartheid a dichotomy of planning systems existed, where different areas were governed by different laws which were underpinned by racial segregation. This resulted in significant issues of fragmentation and confusion. The transition to democracy brought about significant changes to the legal landscape, including planning as the nature, scope and purpose of spatial planning was tasked with addressing the ills of apartheid and promoting sustainability. Although legislative reform was triggered by democracy, clarity of the legal framework governing spatial planning did not occur. One of the contributing factors of this was the persistence of old order legislation and the spatial planning instruments it provided for. The commencement of SPLUMA has triggered wholesale reform which aims to provide a more coherent legal regime governing spatial planning. Positive strides towards this are evident, including the uniform approach which is applicable throughout South Africa that SPLUMA adopts.

Includes bibliographical references. / Large quantities of water are available in the Cape Flats sandy aquifer in the Western Cape. Local industrial, agricultural, domestic and urban development activities are known to be potential polluters of this water through infiltration of wastewater, because of the unconfined nature of the aquifer. In order to determine the potential of the water in the aquifer, fifteen water samples from the Cape Flats were analysed and geochemically assessed prior to their qualify being evaluated in terms of future use in domestic, irrigation and industrial activities.

Bibliography: p. 316-329. / This dissertation seeks to establish that certain natural goods are systematically undervalued and neglected in the decision-making processes of private and public institutions. It is further argued that these natural goods lend security to and enhance the quality of life, hence their continued existence and functioning have considerable value for the survival and well-being of this and future generations. Decision-makers are therefore advised of the need to establish the level at which these natural goods will be maintained in order to prevent their continued decline past some critical point.

Climate change poses problems for agriculture in the Global South. Smallholders in the Global South are often considered highly vulnerable to climate change as a result of their farms being located in marginal environments, their insecure land tenure and lack of technology, and their participation in unpredictable regional and world markets. Analyzing how smallholders perceive climate change and attendant risk, the factors that enable and constrain their adaptive capacity, and the social impacts of state led projects designed to mitigate the impacts of climate change may provide crucial insights for developing effective climate adaption projects and policies. This research examined smallholder perceptions of climate change and their ability to adapt to it in the Loess Plateau region of China. The study also investigated the outcomes of the introduction of a drip irrigation project designed to address water scarcity problems in Gansu, China, as well as smallholder farmer perceptions and knowledge of water saving irrigation technologies in general. Data were collected through interviews and a household survey of smallholders in the region. Smallholders were found to have low levels of perceived ability to adapt to climate change without government assistance. Further, it was found that smallholder perceptions of climate change are structured through their observations of and interactions with dynamic, networked socio-natural assemblages. The labor demands of drip irrigation technology are shown to contradict extant irrigation and livelihood practices and the social institutions that underlie them, both creating new vulnerabilities for farmers and causing system abandonment. The dissertation results suggest that adaptation interventions designed to mitigate the impacts of climate change on smallholders in the Loess Plateau region of China should be holistic and address the day-to-day problems and risks that smallholders face if the interventions are to successfully adapt smallholders to future climate change without causing unintended consequences.

Three types of biosolids (lime-stabilized, aerobically digested, and anaerobically digested biosolids) were applied on 0.13-ha test plots on disturbed rangelands in Western Utah at rates of up to twenty times (20X) the estimated N-based agronomic rate. Soil samples at depths up to 1.5 m were collected and analyzed for nitrogen, phosphorus, regulated metals, pH, and electrical conductivity for up to two years after biosolids application. NH4-N at the soil surface (0.2 m) was primarily lost through ammonia volatilization and nitrification. This observation was consistent with reported increases in nitrate (NO3-N) concentrations found within the soil surface on the biosolids-amended sites. A nitrogen mass balance on the surface soil control volume indicated that the nitrogen residual field measurements were significantly higher than the nitrogen level estimated by accounting for nitrogen inputs (biosolids) and outputs (vegetative yield, nitrogen volatilization and nitrate leaching). Biosolids land application led to increases in vegetative growth and dry matter yield when compared to vegetation grown on control plots. Based on the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM), the model predicted NH4 and NO3 storage values at biosolids-amended sites were significantly different from the field data, which suggests that the model default and limited measured values were inappropriate for a non-irrigated rangeland landscape. The majority of total P and plant available P accumulation was found to occur primarily within the soil surface (0.2 m). Phosphorus soil residual measurements were higher than phosphorus accumulation based on a phosphorus mass balance at soil surface. The phosphorus leachability to ground water at the biosolids-amended treatment sites was low based on the molar ratio of ([P]/([Al]+[Fe])) and the potential formation of calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2). Aerobically digested biosolids appeared to be the optimal biosolids type with regard to minimizing the adverse environmental effects of phosphorus based on the Phosphorus Site Index (PSI). Regulated metal concentrations (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Mo, Ni, Se, and Zn) were well below the cumulative pollutant loading limits for biosolids-amended soils. Finally, nutrients as well as regulated heavy metals associated with biosolids land application to disturbed rangelands do not pose any significant threat to the environment.