abstract: A fundamental gap in geomorphic scholarship regards fluvial terraces in small desert drainages and those terraces associated with integrating drainages. This dissertation analyzes four field-based case studies within the Sonoran Desert, south-central Arizona, with the overriding purpose of developing a theory to explain the formative processes and spatial distribution of fluvial terraces in the region. Strath terraces are a common form (Chapters 2, 3, 4) and are created at the expense of bounding pediments that occur on the margins of constraining mountainous drainage boundaries (Chapters 1, 2, 3). Base-level fluctuations of the major drainages cause the formation of new straths at lower elevations. Dramatic pediment adjustment and subsequent regrading follows (Chapter 3), where pediments regrade to strath floodplains. This linkage between pediments and their distal straths is termed the pediment-strath relationship. Stability of the base level of the major drainage leads to lateral migration and straths are carved at the expense of bounding pediments through an erosional asymmetry facilitated by differential rock decay between the channel bank and bed. Fill terraces occur within the Salt River drainage basin as a result of the integration processes that connect formerly endorheic basins (Chapter 4). The topographic, spatial, and sedimentologic relationship of the Stewart Mountain terrace (Chapter 4) points to a different genetic origin than the lower terraces in this basin. The high Stewart Mountain fill terrace records the initial integration of this river. The strath terraces inset below the Stewart Mountain terrace are a result of the pediment-strath relationship. These case studies also reveal that the under-addressed drainage processes of piracy and overflow have significant impacts in the evolution of drainages the lead to both strath and fill terrace formation in this region. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Geography 2013

Charwell Basin is a 6 km-wide structural depression situated at the boundary between the axial ranges and faulted and folded Marlborough Fault Zone of north-eastern South Island, New Zealand. The basin contains the piedmont reach of the Charwell River, and a series of late Quaternary loess-mantled alluvial terraces and terrace remnants that have been uplifted and translocated from their sediment source due to strike-slip motion along the Hope Fault which bounds the basin to its immediate north. The aim of this study was to provide an interdisciplinary, integrated and holistic analysis of late Quaternary landscape evolution and environmental change in Charwell Basin using terrain analysis, loess stratigraphy, soil chemistry and paleoecological data. The study contributes new understanding of New Zealand landscape and ecosystem responses to regional and global climatic change extending to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6, and shows that climatically-forced shifts in biogeomorphic processes play a significant role in lowland landscape evolution. Morphometric analysis of alluvial terraces and terrace remnants of increasing age demonstrated geomorphic evolution through time, with a decrease in extent of original planar terrace tread morphology and an increase in frequency of steeper slopes and convexo-concave land elements. Paleotopographic analysis of a &gt150 ka terrace mantled by up to three loess sheets revealed multiple episodes of alluvial aggradation and degradation and, subsequent to river abandonment, gully incision prior to and coeval with loess accumulation. Spatial heterogeneity in loess sheet preservation showed a complex history of loess accumulation and erosion. A critical profile curvature range of -0.005 to -0.014 (d2z/dx2, m-1) for loess erosion derived from a model parameterised in different ways successfully predicted loess occurrence on adjacent slope elements, but incorrectly predicted loess occurrence on an older terrace remnant from which all loess has been eroded. Future analyses incorporating planform curvature, regolith erosivity and other landform parameters may improve identification of thresholds controlling loess occurrence in Charwell Basin and in other South Island landscapes. A loess chronostratigraphic framework was developed for, and pedogenic phases identified in, the three loess sheets mantling the &gt150 ka terrace. Except for one age, infrared-stimulated luminescence dates from both an upbuilding interfluve loess exposure and colluvial gully infill underestimated loess age with respect to the widespread Kawakawa/Oruanui Tephra (KOT; 27,097 ± 957 cal. yr BP), highlighting the need for improvements in the methodology. Onset of loess sheet 1 accumulation started at ca. 50 ka, with a break at ca. 27 ka corresponding to the extended Last Glacial Maximum (eLGM) interstadial identified elsewhere in New Zealand. Loess accumulation through MIS 3 indicates a regional loess flux, and that glaciation was not a necessary condition for loess generation in South Island. Loess accumulation and local alluvial aggradation are decoupled: the youngest aggradation event only covers ~12 kyr of the period of loess sheet 1 accumulation. Older local aggradation episodes could not be the source because their associated terraces are mantled by loess sheet 1. In the absence of numerical ages, the timing of L2 and L3 accumulation is inferred on the basis of an offshore clastic sediment record. The upbuilding phase of loess sheet 2 occurred in late MIS 5a/MIS 4, and loess sheet 3 accumulated in two phases in MIS 5b and late MIS 6. Biogenic silica data were used to reconstruct broad shifts in vegetation and changes in gully soil saturation status. During interglacial/interstadial periods (MIS 1, early MIS 3, MIS 5) Nothofagus¬-dominated forest covered the area in association with Microlaena spp grasses. Lowering of treeline altitude during glacial/stadial periods (MIS 2, MIS 3, MIS 5b, late MIS 6) led to reduction in forest cover and a mosaic of shrubs and Chionochloa spp, Festuca spp and Poa spp tussock grasses. Comparison of interfluve and gully records showed spatial heterogeneity in vegetation cover possibly related to environmental gradients of exposure or soil moisture. A post-KOT peak in gully tree phytoliths corresponds to the eLGM interstadial, and a shift to grass-dominated vegetation occurred during the LGM sensu stricto. Diatoms indicated the site became considerably wetter from ca. 36 ka, with peak wetness at ca. 30, 25 and 21 ka, possibly due to reduced evapotranspiration and/or increased precipitation from a combination of strengthened westerly winds and increased cloudiness, or strengthened southerly flow and increased precipitation. Human influence after ca. 750 yr BP led to re-establishment of grassland in the area, which deposited phytoliths mixed to 30 cm depth in the soil. A coupled gully colluvial infilling/vegetation record showed that sediment flux during the late Pleistocene was ~0.0019 m3 m-1 yr-1 under a shrubland/grassland mosaic, and Holocene sediment flux was ~0.0034 m3 m-1 yr-1 under forest. This increase of 60% through the last glacial-interglacial transition resulted from increased bioturbation and down-slope soil transport via root growth and treethrow, which formed a biomantle as evidenced by slope redistribution of the KOT. These results contrast with sediment transport rates and processes hypothesised to occur contemporaneously in adjacent mountain catchments. This suggests that intraregional biogeomorphic processes can differ significantly depending on topography and geological substrate, with different landscapes responding in unique ways to the same climate shifts. Analysis of Quaternary terrestrial landscape evolution in non-glaciated mountainous and lowland areas must therefore consider spatial and temporal heterogeneity in sediment fluxes and underlying transport processes.

Charwell Basin is a 6 km-wide structural depression situated at the boundary between the axial ranges and faulted and folded Marlborough Fault Zone of north-eastern South Island, New Zealand. The basin contains the piedmont reach of the Charwell River, and a series of late Quaternary loess-mantled alluvial terraces and terrace remnants that have been uplifted and translocated from their sediment source due to strike-slip motion along the Hope Fault which bounds the basin to its immediate north. The aim of this study was to provide an interdisciplinary, integrated and holistic analysis of late Quaternary landscape evolution and environmental change in Charwell Basin using terrain analysis, loess stratigraphy, soil chemistry and paleoecological data. The study contributes new understanding of New Zealand landscape and ecosystem responses to regional and global climatic change extending to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6, and shows that climatically-forced shifts in biogeomorphic processes play a significant role in lowland landscape evolution. Morphometric analysis of alluvial terraces and terrace remnants of increasing age demonstrated geomorphic evolution through time, with a decrease in extent of original planar terrace tread morphology and an increase in frequency of steeper slopes and convexo-concave land elements. Paleotopographic analysis of a >150 ka terrace mantled by up to three loess sheets revealed multiple episodes of alluvial aggradation and degradation and, subsequent to river abandonment, gully incision prior to and coeval with loess accumulation. Spatial heterogeneity in loess sheet preservation showed a complex history of loess accumulation and erosion. A critical profile curvature range of -0.005 to -0.014 (d²z/dx², m⁻¹) for loess erosion derived from a model parameterised in different ways successfully predicted loess occurrence on adjacent slope elements, but incorrectly predicted loess occurrence on an older terrace remnant from which all loess has been eroded. Future analyses incorporating planform curvature, regolith erosivity and other landform parameters may improve identification of thresholds controlling loess occurrence in Charwell Basin and in other South Island landscapes. A loess chronostratigraphic framework was developed for, and pedogenic phases identified in, the three loess sheets mantling the >150 ka terrace. Except for one age, infrared-stimulated luminescence dates from both an upbuilding interfluve loess exposure and colluvial gully infill underestimated loess age with respect to the widespread Kawakawa/Oruanui Tephra (KOT; 27,097 ± 957 cal. yr BP), highlighting the need for improvements in the methodology. Onset of loess sheet 1 accumulation started at ca. 50 ka, with a break at ca. 27 ka corresponding to the extended Last Glacial Maximum (eLGM) interstadial identified elsewhere in New Zealand. Loess accumulation through MIS 3 indicates a regional loess flux, and that glaciation was not a necessary condition for loess generation in South Island. Loess accumulation and local alluvial aggradation are decoupled: the youngest aggradation event only covers ~12 kyr of the period of loess sheet 1 accumulation. Older local aggradation episodes could not be the source because their associated terraces are mantled by loess sheet 1. In the absence of numerical ages, the timing of L2 and L3 accumulation is inferred on the basis of an offshore clastic sediment record. The upbuilding phase of loess sheet 2 occurred in late MIS 5a/MIS 4, and loess sheet 3 accumulated in two phases in MIS 5b and late MIS 6. Biogenic silica data were used to reconstruct broad shifts in vegetation and changes in gully soil saturation status. During interglacial/interstadial periods (MIS 1, early MIS 3, MIS 5) Nothofagus-dominated forest covered the area in association with Microlaena spp grasses. Lowering of treeline altitude during glacial/stadial periods (MIS 2, MIS 3, MIS 5b, late MIS 6) led to reduction in forest cover and a mosaic of shrubs and Chionochloa spp, Festuca spp and Poa spp tussock grasses. Comparison of interfluve and gully records showed spatial heterogeneity in vegetation cover possibly related to environmental gradients of exposure or soil moisture. A post-KOT peak in gully tree phytoliths corresponds to the eLGM interstadial, and a shift to grass-dominated vegetation occurred during the LGM sensu stricto. Diatoms indicated the site became considerably wetter from ca. 36 ka, with peak wetness at ca. 30, 25 and 21 ka, possibly due to reduced evapotranspiration and/or increased precipitation from a combination of strengthened westerly winds and increased cloudiness, or strengthened southerly flow and increased precipitation. Human influence after ca. 750 yr BP led to re-establishment of grassland in the area, which deposited phytoliths mixed to 30 cm depth in the soil. A coupled gully colluvial infilling/vegetation record showed that sediment flux during the late Pleistocene was ~0.0019 m³ m⁻¹ yr⁻¹ under a shrubland/grassland mosaic, and Holocene sediment flux was ~0.0034 m³ m⁻¹ yr⁻¹ under forest. This increase of 60% through the last glacial-interglacial transition resulted from increased bioturbation and down-slope soil transport via root growth and treethrow, which formed a biomantle as evidenced by slope redistribution of the KOT. These results contrast with sediment transport rates and processes hypothesised to occur contemporaneously in adjacent mountain catchments. This suggests that intraregional biogeomorphic processes can differ significantly depending on topography and geological substrate, with different landscapes responding in unique ways to the same climate shifts. Analysis of Quaternary terrestrial landscape evolution in non-glaciated mountainous and lowland areas must therefore consider spatial and temporal heterogeneity in sediment fluxes and underlying transport processes.