Concrete filled steel hollow structural (CFS) sections are increasingly used to support large compressive loads in buildings, with the concrete infill and the steel tube working together to yield several benefits both at ambient temperature and during a fire. These members are now widely applied in the design of highly optimized multi-storey and high rise buildings where fire resistance ratings of two or more hours may be required. Whilst the response and design of these sections at ambient temperatures is reasonably well understood, their response in fire, and thus their fire resistance design, is less well established. Structural fire resistance design guidance is available but has been developed based on tests of predominantly short, concentrically-loaded, small-diameter columns in braced frames using normal strength concrete. The current prescriptive guidance is limited and the design of CFS columns is thus often based on a detailed performance based approach, which can be time consuming and expensive and which is generally not well supported by a deep understanding of CFS columns’ behaviour in real fires. This thesis aims to understand the fundamental thermal and mechanical factors at play within these sections so as to provide guidance on how to improve their design for fire resistance when applied either as unprotected or protected sections. A meta-analysis of available furnace test data is used to demonstrate that current guidance fails to capture the relevant mechanics and thus poorly predicts fire resistance. It is also demonstrated that the predictive abilities of the available design standards vary with physical characteristics of the CFS section such as shape and size. A factor which has been observed in furnace tests on CFS sections but which is not accounted for in available guidance is the formation of an air gap between the steel tube and the concrete core due to differential expansion; this affects their structural response in fire. The insulating effect of air gap formation has not previously been addressed in literature and an experimental program is presented to systematically assess the effects of a gap on the heat transfer through the section; showing that the presence of even a 1 mm gap is important. To explicitly assess the heat transfer response within both unprotected and fire protected (i.e. insulated) CFS sections, 34 large scale standard furnace tests were performed in partnership with an industry sponsor. Fourteen tests on large scale unloaded unprotected CFS sections are presented to assess current capability to predict the thermal response and to assess the effects of different sectional and material parameters on heating. New best practice thermal modelling guidance is suggested based on comparison between the models and observed temperatures from the tests. Twenty CFS specimens of varying size and shape, protected with different types and thicknesses of intumescent paint fire insulation, were also tested unloaded in a furnace to understand the thermal evolution within protected CFS sections and to develop design guidance to support application of intumescent coatings in performance based fire resistance design of CFS sections. These tests demonstrate that the intumescent coatings were far more effective than expected when applied to CFS sections, and that current methods of designing the coatings’ thickness are overly conservative. The reason for this appears to be that the calculation of effective section factor which is used in the prescription of intumescent coating thicknesses is based on the thermal response of unprotected CFS sections which display fundamentally different heating characteristics from protected sections due to the development of a thermal gradient in the concrete core. It is also demonstrated (by calculation supported by the testing presented herein) that the steel failure temperature (i.e. limiting temperature) of an unprotected CFS column in fire is significantly higher than one which is protected; procedures to determine the limiting temperature of protected sections are suggested. Finally, the residual strength of fire-exposed CFS columns is examined through structural testing of 19 of the 34 fire tested columns along with unheated control specimens. The results provide insights into the residual response of unprotected and protected CFS section exposed to fire, and demonstrate a reasonable ability to calculate their residual structural capacity. The work presented in this thesis has shed light on the ability of available guidance to rationally predict the thermal and structural response to fire of CFS columns, has improved the understanding of the thermal evolution within protected and unprotected CFS sections in fire, has provided best-practice guidance and material input parameters for both thermal and structural modelling of CFS sections, and has improved understanding of the residual capacity of CFS sections after a fire.

A maioria dos materiais estruturais de Construção Civil tem suas propriedades mecânicas reduzidas, quando submetidos a temperaturas elevadas. Por isso, a capacidade resistente das estruturas de concreto armado dos edifícios pode ser reduzida devido à ação térmica de incêndios. Se os meios de proteção ativa dos edifícios não forem eficientes, o incêndio desenvolve-se em proporções catastróficas. A temperatura dos elementos estruturais se eleva o suficiente para induzir à redução da resistência e rigidez e, por conseguinte, à ruptura localizada ou até ao colapso progressivo do edifício. O objetivo principal da segurança contra-incêndio é a proteção à vida dos ocupantes das edificações. Este trabalho tem o objetivo de fornecer informações às futuras revisões de normas pertinentes ao projeto de estruturas de concreto e às pesquisas subseqüentes e contribuir à escassa literatura técnica em português sobre o tema. São apresentados: os efeitos do calor sobre as propriedades térmicas e mecânicas dos materiais concreto e aço e suas influências sobre o comportamento estrutural de edifícios de concreto armado, os métodos de cálculo disponíveis na literatura técnica internacional para o projeto de estruturas de concreto armado em situação de incêndio e proposta de um método simplificado expedito mais preciso para o projeto de elementos submetidos à flexão simples e normal composta para os padrões geométricos e características do concreto usuais no Brasil. / The thermal and mechanical properties of building materials are reduced at high temperatures, and the structural resistance of reinforced concrete buildings, as well. If the means of active protection are not efficient the fire will develop and the consequential increase in temperature can take an important role on the local failure of a single member or the progressive collapse of the building. The structural design must take into account the possibility of a fire happening as an accidental action during the lifetime of the building, aiming mainly at the protection of the users lives. This doctoral thesis aims to contribute to the development of the technical references in Portuguese about the fire design of reinforced concrete structures, to stimulate further researches and afterwards standard reviews related to the structural design in fire of reinforced concrete buildings. The work reviews the heat effects on the thermal and mechanical properties of the materials and the consequential impact on the structural behaviour of reinforced concrete buildings, the calculation methods available in the international technical reference for the fire design of reinforced concrete structures and presents a proposal of an optimized simplified calculation method for the members under simple bending or composed axial-moment load, considering the geometric and concrete characteristics very usual in Brazil.

A maioria dos materiais estruturais de Construção Civil tem suas propriedades mecânicas reduzidas, quando submetidos a temperaturas elevadas. Por isso, a capacidade resistente das estruturas de concreto armado dos edifícios pode ser reduzida devido à ação térmica de incêndios. Se os meios de proteção ativa dos edifícios não forem eficientes, o incêndio desenvolve-se em proporções catastróficas. A temperatura dos elementos estruturais se eleva o suficiente para induzir à redução da resistência e rigidez e, por conseguinte, à ruptura localizada ou até ao colapso progressivo do edifício. O objetivo principal da segurança contra-incêndio é a proteção à vida dos ocupantes das edificações. Este trabalho tem o objetivo de fornecer informações às futuras revisões de normas pertinentes ao projeto de estruturas de concreto e às pesquisas subseqüentes e contribuir à escassa literatura técnica em português sobre o tema. São apresentados: os efeitos do calor sobre as propriedades térmicas e mecânicas dos materiais concreto e aço e suas influências sobre o comportamento estrutural de edifícios de concreto armado, os métodos de cálculo disponíveis na literatura técnica internacional para o projeto de estruturas de concreto armado em situação de incêndio e proposta de um método simplificado expedito mais preciso para o projeto de elementos submetidos à flexão simples e normal composta para os padrões geométricos e características do concreto usuais no Brasil. / The thermal and mechanical properties of building materials are reduced at high temperatures, and the structural resistance of reinforced concrete buildings, as well. If the means of active protection are not efficient the fire will develop and the consequential increase in temperature can take an important role on the local failure of a single member or the progressive collapse of the building. The structural design must take into account the possibility of a fire happening as an accidental action during the lifetime of the building, aiming mainly at the protection of the users lives. This doctoral thesis aims to contribute to the development of the technical references in Portuguese about the fire design of reinforced concrete structures, to stimulate further researches and afterwards standard reviews related to the structural design in fire of reinforced concrete buildings. The work reviews the heat effects on the thermal and mechanical properties of the materials and the consequential impact on the structural behaviour of reinforced concrete buildings, the calculation methods available in the international technical reference for the fire design of reinforced concrete structures and presents a proposal of an optimized simplified calculation method for the members under simple bending or composed axial-moment load, considering the geometric and concrete characteristics very usual in Brazil.

The advantages of cold-formed thin-walled steel studs are many and their applications in building constructions continue to grow. They are used as load-bearing members. An example is lightweight wall panel assemblies which consist of channel steel studs with gypsum plasterboard layers attached to the two flanges, often with interior insulation. At present, expensive fire tests or advanced numerical modelling methods are necessary in order to discover the fire resistance of such wall assemblies. For common practice this is not effective and a simplified method, suitable for use in daily design, is necessary. The aim of this research is to develop such simplified methods. The first main objective of this study is to develop a simple approach to calculate the temperature distributions in the steel section, in particular the temperatures on both the exposed and unexposed sides when the panel is exposed to fire exposure from one side. These two temperatures are the most influential factors in the fire resistance of this type of wall assembly. The proposed method calculates the average temperatures in the flanges of the steel section and assumes that the temperature in the web is linear. The proposed method is based on a simple heat balance analysis for a few nodes representing the key components of the wall panel. The thermal resistance of these nodes are obtained by the weighted average of thermal resistances in an effective width of the panel within which heat transfer in the panel width direction is assumed to occur. The proposed method has been extensively validated by comparison with numerical parametric studies. In order to calculate the ultimate capacity of steel studs, the traditional method is by using effective width. However, this method is now being questioned as it considers elements of section in isolation and does not consider interaction between the elements. In addition, this method is not appropriate to be extended to steel studs under fire conditions. The cross-section under fire conditions has non-uniform temperature distribution which results in the non-uniform distribution of mechanical properties. Using an effective width method to deal with this problem will require many assumptions whose accuracy is uncertain. Recently, the direct strength method (DSM) has been developed and its accuracy for ambient applications has been comprehensively validated. This method calculates cross-sectional plastic resistance and elastic critical loads for local, distortional and global buckling modes with the aid of simple computer programs. The elastic and plastic resistances are then combined to give the ultimate resistance of the structure using interaction equations. This method is suited to steel studs with non-uniform temperature distribution in the cross-section. The second main objective of this study is to extend the direct strength method for application to thin-walled steel studs having non-uniform elevated temperature distributions in the cross-section. It has been found that the DSM concept is applicable, but the interaction equations should be modified to allow for the effects of elevated temperature (non-uniform temperature distribution and changes in stress-strain relationships). Also the effects of thermal bowing should be included when calculating the plastic resistance and the elastic buckling loads of the cross-section. This research has proposed new interaction equations and has developed design tools. By comparing the results of the proposed method with validated Finite Element simulations over a very large range of parametric studies, the proposed method has been demonstrated to be valid. The validation studies include both standard and parametric fire exposures and are generally applicable.

Structural fire design represents one important aspect of the design of reinforced concrete buildings. The work presented in this thesis seeks to elucidate the structural behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs during exposure to heating from below, as would occur in the case of a building fire, with a particular focus on structural fire modelling using finite element analysis. The focus in on validating finite element models against experimental results and quantifying the sensitivity of model outputs to relevant thermal and mechanical input parameters. A primary goal of the work is to provide recommendations to structural fire engineering analysts and designers considering the performance-based design of reinforced concrete slabs for structural fire resistance using available finite element software. A critical review of the available knowledge of the structural fire response of reinforced concrete structures in general and concrete slabs in particular is presented, along with an awareness as to the importance of understanding structural response of concrete structures exposed to fires. Current techniques for structural fire design of concrete structures are reviewed, and shortcomings highlighted. Available experimental data are presented, and various finite element models of these slabs are developed and interrogated to identify important aspects for understanding, as well as for future improvement of similar studies (both experimental and numerical) with the intention of supporting future progress in structural fire engineering, in particular as regards performance based structural fire design of concrete slabs. A range of thermal and mechanical parameters that are potentially important and influential in the structural fire design of reinforced concrete slabs is then studied, including: fire scenario, thermal properties of materials (thermal conductivity and specific heat), heat transfer parameters (coefficient of convection and emissivity) and assumptions, restraint conditions at the supports, variations of span-to-depth ratio, reinforcement detailing, as well as plan aspect ratio are all investigated; their influence on the structural fire response of reinforced concrete slabs is studied and discussed. A key issue in validating finite element models against experimental results lies in defining the temperature inputs to the structural finite element models correctly. Variation of available thermal and mechanical input parameters, as recommended in Eurocodes, influences the predictive performance of thermal and structural finite element models, however these are not the main contributing factors in obtaining a credible prediction of response from the finite element models. The most challenging aspect in performing heat transfer analysis for fire furnace tested reinforced concrete slabs lies in defining the correct thermal boundary condition. For simply supported one-way spanning and two-way spanning slabs, increasing slab's thickness (lowering span-depth ratio) does not improve fire resistance rating for the slabs when both limiting deflection criteria and limiting tensile plastic strain are set as acceptance criteria. Two-way slabs with higher span-depth ratio have better fire resistance ratings, judging from the overall trends and magnitudes of mid-span deflections. The formation of plastic hinges is likely to occur for one-way spanning slabs modelled with finite rotational spring stiffness at supports, but not for two-way spanning slabs. A yield line mechanism in two-way slabs means that the behaviour is more complex as compared to the simple flexural mechanism for one-way slabs. In one-way slabs, plastic hinges potentially occur at the location where top reinforcement is curtailed, highlighting the importance of properly understanding the nuances in response of concrete slabs in fire. Investigation of the influence of aspect ratio in two-way spanning slabs confirms that slabs with lower aspect ratios have better structural fire resistance than slabs with higher aspect ratios when both limiting deflection criteria and limiting tensile strain in reinforcing steel were used as the performance indicators. A combination of both limiting mid-span deflection criteria as well as limiting tensile plastic strain is recommended for specifying acceptance criteria for both one-way and two-way slabs, since it gives more accurate and comprehensive assessment on the structural response of the slabs under exposure to severe heating from below.

Den brandskyddsmetod av bjälklagsbalkar som används mest idag är brandskyddsfärg och brandskyddsskivor. Dessa metoder kräver ett extra arbetsmoment efter att balken är monterad. Genom att fylla balken med betong samtidigt som hålbjälklagskarvarna fylls och på så sätt integrera brandskyddet i balken kan ett extra arbetsmoment undvikas. Byggnadstekniska Byrån har märkt ett intresse från beställare att i ett tidigt skede få in brandskyddet i projekteringen.  Målet är att undersöka om betong, ingjuten i en HSQ-balk kan få balken att uppfylla de brandskyddskrav som idag ställs enligt Boverkets byggregler. Målet är även att ta reda på om det är kostnadseffektivt jämfört med brandskyddsfärg.  Referensobjektet som används är en skola på tre våningar och balken som undersöks är den som tar upp de största lasterna i projektet. Balken ska enligt Boverkets byggregler klara av en standardbrand i 60 min. Temperaturanalysen av balktvärsnitten har gjorts i Ansys Aim 18.2 och dimensioneringsmetoder av balken sker enligt Eurokoder.  Balken som idag finns på plats skulle inte i oskyddat tillstånd klara av en standardbrand i 60min. De utförda beräkningarna visar att balken i samverkan med betong och armering i tvärsnittet skulle klara momenten och tvärkrafterna i referensobjektet. Fenomen så som spjälkning av betong, dess inverkan på betongens hållfasthet samt armeringens vidhäftning har inte kunnat tas i beaktning. Därför rekommenderas att balkens underfläns dimensioneras upp från 20mm till 30mm och enbart betraktar den ingjutna betongen som kylande medium.