Mental fatigue impairs performance of physically-demanding tasks and increases rating of perceived exertion (RPE) while performing. However, there may be ways of overcoming such performance decrements. One possible method includes the use of attentionally focused instructions. Motor learning research has shown that externally focused instructions can lead to improved performance in comparison to internally focused instructions. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the moderating effect of attentional focus on the mental fatigue – endurance performance relationship as well as the mental fatigue – perceived exertion relationship. Undergraduate students (N = 78) completed two wall sit tasks to volitional failure, one before and one after the completion of a cognitive task. Half the participants were randomly assigned to complete a high cognitive demand task to induce mental fatigue (incongruent Stroop; HMF), while the other half performed a low cognitive demand task (documentary viewing; LMF) before the second wall sit. Immediately prior to the second wall sit, half the participants in each cognitive task group also received instructions to focus their attention either internally (INT) or externally (EXT) during the second wall sit. The main effect of mental fatigue (p < .001, d = .873) during the cognitive task and the main effect of attentional focus (p < .001, d = .883) during the wall sit task were significant, indicating effective manipulations. Results found no moderating effect of attentional focus on wall sit performance (p >.500) or RPE (p = .724). However, between-group analyses were conducted to probe the differences in performance between each group. Results indicated the HMF/INT group performed significantly worse than the LMF/EXT (p = .032) and trended towards performing worse than the HMF/EXT and LMF/INT groups (ps < .090). Significant differences in RPE were also seen between trials for the HMF/INT group (p = .009, d = .592) alone, suggesting detrimental effects of both mental fatigue and internal focus combined. Overall, the data indicate a potential moderating effect of internal attentional focus that may exacerbate the detrimental effects of mental fatigue on performance and RPE. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Student-athletes must constantly balance their athletic, academic, and social roles. Their dual career can easily be overwhelming. Missing classes because of intense travel can be disruptive to the flow of classes and material. Online education is one way to provide a personalized, portable, on-demand learning environment that is flexible regarding both time and location, doesn't require travel to and from campus, is self-paced, and is provided at the learner's convenience. The purpose of this study was to determine general concerns experienced by Virginia Tech student-athletes, as well as their perceptions and practices about online education. Understanding student-athletes' needs and wants can help promote high quality online course development. In addition, it allows educators to tailor marketing specifically to student-athletes and increases the likelihood that students will experience positive online learning experiences. Data was collected using focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and a demographic questionnaire. Student-athletes from all varsity teams were purposively selected for two revenue sports sessions and two non-revenue sports sessions targeting 6-8 athletes in each group. Five key informant interviews were conducted with personnel from the athletic department. Participants seemed to want the best of both worlds, preferring the convenience of online courses, but also desiring regular contact and interaction with faculty and other class members (social component). The non-revenue athletes preferred taking classes in a traditional classroom to learn material. They preferred taking online classes when they travel, for time issues, or easy credit. Though all student-athletes stated that they took advantage of online classes, the revenue athletes seemed to appreciate them more and were more willing to take more online classes to help ease their schedule. A purely online education program would not result in balance. / Ph. D.

National studies indicate that older women have a suboptimal intake of calcium, and are not consuming the recommended daily servings of dairy foods. Three focus groups of 5-10 women were conducted to examine older women’s perceptions of dairy foods. Independent living, Caucasian women aged 65 and older were recruited from retirement communities in urban and rural areas of Virginia. Discussion questions addressed preferences for dairy foods, advantages and disadvantages of dairy foods, factors that influence dairy intake, and possibilities for product improvements. Focus group discussions were audio taped, transcribed by the facilitator, then checked for accuracy by a Virginia Tech graduate student using methods described by Krueger (1988). Both persons identified major and minor themes and organized quotations thematically. Analysis was independently conducted to verify correct interpretation of quotations. Results were reported in the following three broad themes: Positive and Negative Health Perceptions, Sensory Attributes, and External Influences. The predominant negative health perception was that many dairy foods are high in fat. Many women also associated dairy foods with cholesterol, sodium, and calories. One woman in each focus group reported that she experienced lactose intolerance. Participants believed dairy foods were a good source of calcium and other nutrients and were aware of osteoporosis and its relationship with calcium. However, calcium supplement use, particularly Tums®, was prevalent, and participants felt it was important in osteoporosis prevention. Women reported their physicians encouraged them to use calcium supplements and watch intake of dairy foods due to fat content. Women also reported receiving information from media sources such as health newsletters. Women wanted the food industry to recognize older adults as an important market. Many felt that dairy food packages, particularly cottage cheese and reduced-fat ice creams, were too large for a single person and resulted in spoilage and wasted money. Women found it difficult to locate and read expiration dates, and some expressed confusion over “Use By” and “Sell By” dates. Products, such as plastic milk cartons and zip-pack cheeses, were difficult for women with arthritic hands and diminished vision to open. Women’s comments suggested that they would be receptive to products and packaging designed and marketed to meet their needs. Appropriate recommendations are made to the dairy industry for the promotion and development of such dairy foods. Nutrition education programs for this population should continue to promote the use of low fat dairy foods and should emphasize other nutrients, such as Vitamin D and phosphorus, found in dairy foods. / Master of Science

Low-income older adults are at high risk for developing diet-related chronic diseases. Nutrition education programs can improve dietary and lifestyle practices, thereby decreasing the incidence of diet-related diseases. Focus groups were conducted to gain insight into the needs and preferences of low-income older adults for nutrition education. Results were made available for use in the Smart Choices Nutrition Education Program at Virginia Tech to aid in the development of nutrition education programs. Four focus groups were conducted with a total of 35 elderly (28 females; 7 males), ages 55-90+ years, recruited from Congregate Meal Program sites in four regions of Virginia. Seventeen were African American, and 18 were non-Hispanic white. Discussion questions addressed practices for purchasing and preparing foods, importance of food to health, and preferences for education methods. The Determine Your Nutritional Health Checklist of the Nutrition Screening Initiative was used to assess nutritional risk of the elderly adults. Focus group discussions were audio-taped and written transcripts were made for use in data analysis. Themes of the discussions were identified in that analysis and reported in the following broad areas: Factors that Influenced Dietary Practices of Focus Group Participants and Perceived Needs and Preferences of Focus Group Participants for Nutrition Education. All elderly believed that food was important to their health and were interested in nutrition education. The predominant theme was the influence of a health condition on dietary practices. The elderly made food choices according to dietary restrictions imposed by their health condition. The most prevalent health conditions were chronic diseases, primarily hypertension, diabetes, and hiatal hernia. The majority (32) were at nutritional risk, with a larger number at high risk (20) than at moderate risk (12). Food preferences and sensory attributes of food also were important to them when making food choices. Some reported that convenience was important because they did not want to spend time and effort to purchase and prepare foods. Some also reported experiencing food insecurity, primarily from lack of money. The majority learned about food and cooking from family members, and only a few learned about nutrition and food choices from health professionals. Most wanted information about disease-specific food choices and preparation methods, and preferred to receive this information during group discussions because sharing ideas and opinions was an effective way to learn. Only a few were interested in television programs, while many were interested in written materials. Nutrition education programs for low-income elderly should teach these adults how to choose and prepare foods that are appealing and nutritious, as well as within dietary restrictions imposed by their health conditions. Educators should convey this information to them in group settings and distribute written materials, such as pamphlets and brochures, that outline "how-to" information. / Master of Science

This study sought to better understand the impact of feedback on performance by examining how regulatory focus and message framing potentially interact to influence recipient's attitudes towards and recall of performance feedback recommendations. Participants were 221 undergraduates. Participant's chronic regulatory focus orientation was measured in phase 1. In phase 2, regulatory focus orientation was manipulated prior having participants complete a puzzle task. After completing the task, they were given performance feedback recommendations that were framed to highlight either promotion or prevention concerns. Their attitudes towards and recall of the recommendations they received were then measured. Though not all of the predictions of the study were supported, results indicated a significant three-way interaction between chronic promotion, the manipulation of regulatory focus, and the framing of the performance feedback recommendations that qualified the relationship between chronic promotion and attitudes. This finding supports the notion that a better understanding of how feedback impacts subsequent performance is possible by studying the interaction between regulatory focus and message framing. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed. / Master of Science

The central purpose of this dissertation is to develop and test a theoretical model of mind wandering in a technological setting by integrating the emerging work and theory on mind wandering—a shift of attention from the primary task to the processing of internal goals. This dissertation is intended to advance our understanding on the costs and benefits of mind wandering in information systems (IS) research and in turn, contribute to the literature of cognitive IS research. Understanding the consequences of mind wandering in a technological setting is imperative because mind wandering plays a vital role in influencing various outcomes associated with technology use and/or technology learning, such as technology anxiety, software self-efficacy, and task performance. This dissertation is composed of three essays which examine the determinants and consequences of mind wandering and focus of attention on a number of emotional and cognitive outcomes. A multi-method approach (i.e., online survey and laboratory experiment) across three essays is used to test the research models. Essay 1 focuses on developing the measurement items and estimating the impact of mind wandering on users' emotional outcomes (i.e., technology anxiety and users' satisfaction). Drawing upon the content regulation hypothesis of mind wandering, the content of thoughts are differentiated into two categories—technology-related thought (herein IT) and non-technology related thought (herein non-IT). The results show that whereas mind wandering (non-IT) is a major determinant of technology anxiety, focus of attention (IT) is the main predictor of users' satisfaction. Essay 2 focuses on the effect of mind wandering and focus of attention in the IS learning context. The study begins by exploring the hypotheses concerning the roles of executive functions (i.e., inhibition, switching, and working memory) and task complexity in influencing the occurrence of mind wandering and focus of attention, and in turn, cognitive outcomes (i.e., software self-efficacy and learning performance). Essay 2 integrates the use of psychological testing to measure executive functions and self-report to measure mind wandering and focus of attention. The interaction effects between mind wandering and focus of attention are also tested. The findings reveal that the costs and benefits of mind wandering in IS learning depend, in part, upon its content, whether it's technology-related or non-technology-related. Specifically, the results suggest that the congruence between the content of mind wandering experience and focus of attention determines the outcomes of such experience. Essay 3 examines the extent to which individuals' focus of attention and mind wandering influence IS decision making performance at different levels of task complexity. The research model is tested using a laboratory experiment in the context of B2C e-commerce. Drawing upon unconscious thought theory and executive control theory of mind wandering, the results show that under a low task complexity condition, focus of attention and mind wandering do not have any significant effects on performance accuracy. Under a medium task complexity condition, focus of attention leads to higher performance accuracy, but mind wandering does not have a significant effect on performance accuracy. However, under high task complexity, both focus of attention and mind wandering lead to higher performance accuracy. Mind wandering also negatively influences performance efficiency under all levels of IS task complexity.

The aim of the research is to identify, evaluate and develop service quality measures/dimensions – from the students’ point of view – at independent Colleges in the UK. The primary objective of the study is to determine whether private higher education providers in the UK meet student expectations. In order to achieve the primary objective, the research identified two secondary objectives as: what are the areas of service quality that are most important to students, when choosing to study at a private college in the UK; and does their chosen private college meet student expectations in all these areas? The research consists of three stages: 1) an extensive analysis of literature followed by discussions with industry experts to map recent developments within independent colleges in the UK, 2) an analysis of a student focus group discussions as well as an expert panel review, of the focus group findings, in order to develop the initial conceptual model and the development of the measurement instrument i.e., online questionnaire, and 3) the online questionnaire link was then promoted to qualifying participants internationally using the official website (www.service-quality.co.uk) as well as social media, such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter. In addition, links to the survey and the progress have been listed at several discussion groups as well as included in online press releases. The online questionnaire was made available from 1st June to 30th November 2013, to ensure sufficient time was given to promote the survey and attract a good number of responses. 12,775 completed questionnaires were gathered during the six months period. The sample data was analysed for the normality of distribution followed by assessment of validity and reliability, using parametric statistical analysis tools. Finally, the research concluded that students chose to study at independent colleges as they offered five service quality dimensions as: flexible, market driven, assurance, customer focus and focus practitioners. The participants also agreed that their chosen independent college either met or exceeded their expectations. The research findings were inconclusive in terms of the order of importance of these service quality dimensions. The service quality and performance model for independent colleges in the UK requires these three components: service quality dimensions, measures, and implementation points, to continuously refine and develop. Following such a model, the organisation will continuously identify and refine the service quality dimensions and measures to meet changing student expectations on a continuous basis, whilst sustaining positive service gaps, thriving to remove negative service gaps and by converting neutral areas to positive service gaps.

Thesis (M.A. (African Languages)) --University of the North, 2002 / Refer to the document

This paper investigates the structural properties of morphosyntactically marked focus constructions, focussing on the often neglected non-focal sentence part in African tone languages. <br>Based on new empirical evidence from five Gur and Kwa languages, we claim that these focus expressions have to be analysed as biclausal constructions even though they do not represent clefts containing restrictive relative clauses. <br>First, we relativize the partly overgeneralized assumptions about structural correspondences between the out-of-focus part and relative clauses, and second, we show that our data do in fact support the hypothesis of a clause coordinating pattern as present in clause sequences in narration. <br>It is argued that we deal with a non-accidental, systematic feature and that grammaticalization may conceal such basic narrative structures.

The most recent trend in the studies of LF intervention effects makes crucial reference to focusing effects on the interveners, and this paper critically examines the representative analyses of the focus-based approach. While each analysis has its own merits and shortcomings, I argue that a pragmatic analysis that does not make appeal to syntactic configurations is better equipped to deal with many of the complex and delicate facts surrounding intervention effects.