Neural Tube Defects (NTDs) are a group of common congenital malformations that result from incomplete neural tube closure leading to abnormalities of the brain and/or spinal cord. Unfortunately, their etiology remains unknown, probably due to complex multifactorial interactions. The protective effect of dietary folates in preventing NTDs is well known, but this beneficial effect is limited to the 60 to 70% of cases; leaving 30% of the population without any known option for improving pregnancy outcomes. The mechanism by which folates rescue NTD-affected embryos is poorly understood, but the ability of folate supplementation to overcome a significant percentage of NTDs and the critical role of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate in the remethylation of homocysteine (Hcy) to methionine in the placenta suggests that folate binding and/or transport might play a critical role during development. We hypothesized that maternal autoantibodies (AB) targeting placental folate receptor alpha (FRα) are blocking the receptor and limiting the ability of the FRα to bind folates, reducing intraembryonic folate levels. Furthermore, we hypothesized that AB binding to other relevant proteins required for trophoblastic growth and placentation can be involved in activating pathologic inflammatory pathways that can result in suboptimal uptake of nutrients and contribute to an abnormal closure of the neural tube. We developed a high throughput ELISA to evaluate whether mothers experiencing pregnancies complicated with NTDs are more likely to have placental AB to FRα than are mothers experiencing normal pregnancies. We optimized and simplified a protocol for AB elution from placental tissues and determined whether these antibodies were blocking the FRα from binding with available folates. Although anti-FRα IgG antibodies were not associated to the blocking activity in this study, we found that the blocking activity was higher in the placentas from NTD-affected pregnancies compared to controls, that FRα IgM antibodies are most likely the type of antibody produced during gestation that is most relevant to the blocking activity and that it is unlikely that autoimmunity against other developmental proteins associated with NTDs is generating the NTDs. / text

Anticancer therapeutics are often limited to suboptimal doses due to their lack of selectivity for tumor cells and resultant damage to healthy tissue. These limitations motivated researchers to develop tumor-specific delivery systems for improved therapeutic efficacy and reduced unintended cytotoxicity. Polyamidoamine dendrimers offer an ideal platform for designing targeted therapeutics with tunable characteristics that optimize pharmacokinetic behavior and targeting specificity. Ligand conjugation to dendrimer provides the biochemical interaction necessary to activate tumor-specific receptors for receptor-mediated endocytosis and effective internalization of polyplexes. Tumor-specific receptors overexpressed in carcinomas, like folate receptor-alpha (FOLRα), are targeted by ligand-conjugated dendrimer to allow enhanced internalization of dendrimer and its therapeutic cargo. We examined the cellular trafficking dynamics and potential of folate-conjugated dendrimer for nucleic acid delivery in vitro. Results show folate-conjugation to G4 PAMAM dendrimer (G4FA) confers enhanced uptake in FOLRα-positive tumor cells. Cells internalize G4FA in a receptor-dependent manner with specificity for FOLRα-positive tumor cells.

Elevated total plasma homocysteine (tHcy) is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and neurocognitive disease such as dementia. The B vitamins folate and B12 are the main de terminants of tHcy. tHcy concentration can also be affected by mutations in genes coding for receptors, enzymes and transporters important in the metabolism of Hcy. This thesis focuses on mutations in the genes for folate receptor-alpha and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) and the effect they have on tHcy concentrations. Six novel mutations in the gene for folate receptor-alpha were described in Paper I. Taken together they exist in a population with a prevalence of approximately 1% and thus are not unusual. There may be an association of –69dupA and –18C>T to tHcy but for the 25-bp deletion, –856C>T, –921T>C and –1043G>A there is probably no association to tHcy. Mutation screening was continued and four additional mutations, 1314G>A, 1816delC, 1841G>A and 1928C>T, were described in Paper II. The prevalences for the heterozygotes were between 0.5% and 13% in an elderly population. There was no significant difference in prevalence between the elderly subjects and patients with dementia. The 1816(–)-allele and the 1841A-allele were in complete linkage and the haplotype 1816(–)-1841A may possibly have a tHcy raising effect. The 1314G>A and 1928C>T mutations had no association to tHcy. The genotype prevalences and haplotype frequencies of the MTHFR 677C>T, 1298A>C and 1793G>A polymorphisms were determined in a population sample of Swedish children and adolescents (Paper III). The MTHFR 677T-allele was associated with increased tHcy concentrations in both children and adolescents. A small elevating effect of the 1298C-allele and a small lowering effect of the 1793A-allele could be shown. In an epidemiological sample of adults from the Canary Islands, Spain, data for serum folate and vitamin B12 were used for a broader study of the nutrigenetic impact on tHcy (Paper IV). The 677T-allele had a significant tHcy increasing effect in men but not in women. The 1298C-allele had a minor elevating effect on tHcy in men with the 677CT genotype. It was not possible to document any effect of the 1793A-allele on tHcy due to its low prevalence. A slightly superior explanatory power for the genetic impact was obtained using the MTHFR haplotypes in the analysis compared to the MTHFR 677C>T genotype-based approach in both the Swedish children and adolescents and in the Spanish adults. Therefore MTHFR haplotypes should be considered when analysing the impact of the MTHFR 677C>T, 1298A>C and 1793G>A polymorphisms on tHcy. Notwithstanding the large geographical distance between our study populations the haplotype composition is quite similar. The MTHFR 677T-allele is slightly more prevalent in Spain compared to Sweden but it has only an effect on tHcy in the Spanish men. Age, gender and factors linked to the ethnicity of the studied subjects, seem to be able to override the nutrigenetic impact of tHcy-raising genotypes or haplotypes in particular settings, such as in the Spanish women in our study. Gene-nutrient interactions on plasma tHcy levels thus may or may not exist in a certain population. The transferability of nutrigenetic findings may therefore be limited, and must be re-evaluated for each particular setting of age-gender-ethnicity.

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In der vorliegenden experimentell durchgeführten Dissertation wurden neue Mutationen im FOLR1-Gen molekular charakterisiert. Die untersuchten Mutationen führten zu Veränderungen im Folatrezeptor α, einem von Zellen des Plexus choroideus exprimierten Protein, welches den Haupttransporter von  5-MTHF über die Blut-Liquor-Schranke darstellt. Mutationen im FOLR1-Gen sind kürzlich als Ursache einer zerebralen Folattransport-Defizienz identifiziert worden. Diese Erkrankung gehört zu einer Gruppe neurologischer Störungen, die sich durch isoliert niedrige Liquorfolatwerte  auszeichnen und zusammenfassend als zerebrale Folatdefizienz bezeichnet werden. Die zerebrale Folattransportdefizienz manifestiert sich typischerweise im frühen Kleinkindesalter und äußert sich klinisch in Form einer chronisch-progredienten psychomotorischen Regression mit zerebralen Krampfanfällen und einer durch MRT nachweisbaren Myelinisierungsstörung. Eine Substitution mit  5‘-Formyltetrahydrofolat konnte bei der Mehrzahl der identifizierten Patienten eine partielle Remission der Symptome bewirken.  Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden vier Mutationen im FOLR1-Gen hinsichtlich ihrer molekularen Auswirkungen auf die Proteinxpression, die Funktionalität bzw. Rezeptor-Bindungsfähigkeit und die Lokalisation des Proteins untersucht. Bei den Mutationen handelt es sich um zwei neue, aus Patienten-DNS identifizierte Punktmutationen, p.C169Y und p.N222S, sowie die bereits beschriebenen FRα-Mutanten p.C105R und FRα p.K44_P49dup.  Die heterologe Expression der mutanten Folatrezeptoren zeigte in Westernblot-Analysen keine signifikanten Veränderungen der Protein-Expressionsrate, verglichen mit dem Wildtyp-Protein. Allerdings bestand eine stark verminderte Rezeptor-Folsäurebindung in radioaktiven Bindungsassays. Ein funktioneller Unterschied zwischen den einzelnen Mutanten konnte im Verlauf der Experimente identifiziert werden. Die FRα-Proteinmutanten p.N222S und p.K44_P49dup zeigten verglichen mit den anderen Mutanten eine höhere Folsäure-Restbindung von ca. 20 % des Wildtypproteins. Im Rahmen von Immunfluoreszenzmikroskopien konnte gezeigt werden, dass die FRα-Mutante p.K44_P49dup partiell zellmembranständig, entsprechend dem FRα-Wildtyp, exprimiert wurde. Die übrigen untersuchten Proteinmutanten zeigten in intrazellulären Kompartimenten zumindest teilweise eine Kolokalisation mit dem Marker des endoplasmatischen Retikulums. Alle Untersuchungen wurden mit transfizierten CHO-K1-Zellen durchgeführt und konnten in zwei polaren Zelllinien, immortalisierten Epithelzellen des Plexus choroideus (Z310) und humanen Leberzellkarzinomzellen (HepG2) bestätigt werden. Die Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation sind Bestandteil einer kürzlich in BRAIN veröffentlichten Arbeit (Grapp et al. 2012) und tragen zum besseren Verständnis der molekularen Grundlagen der zerebralen Folattransport-Defizienz, einer neuerkannten, behandelbaren neuropädiatrischen Erkrankung, bei. Die  Pathogenität der untersuchten FOLR1-Mutationen wird auf molekularer Ebene belegt. Die Bedeutung dieser molekulargenetischen Untersuchungen besteht darin, dass eine frühzeitige Folat-Behandlung erkrankter Kinder zu einer deutlichen Verbesserung der Symptome führt.