Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have been harvested in the wild for generations in Appalachia. Demand for forest farmed raw material and transparent supply chains is growing, which has increased attention on the role of NTFPs in regional livelihoods. We conducted an embedded case study to understand contemporary NTFP harvest, perceptions of community-based development of NTFP livelihood opportunities, and the extent to which forest landowners are interested forest farming. One case study focused on Grayson County, Virginia and included semi-structured interviews with 16 key stakeholders. Interviews explored motivations, species preferences, and uses of NTFPs among individuals and then perceived assets, obstacles, and desired strategies for NTFP livelihood development within the community. Through qualitative analysis we found financial benefits, engagement with nature, and personal preferences (personal fulfillment, learning and creativity, and lifestyle) were key motivators. Newcomers to Appalachia were more likely to balance monetary, environmental, and lifestyle motivations, and multigenerational residents focused more on financial motivations and to a lesser degree lifestyle. We used the community capitals framework to analyze the community focused data and found references to natural, human, and cultural capital as both an asset and an obstacle. Financial capital was a top-obstacle whereas social capital was a top asset. Strategies focused on social, human, and financial capital investments such as social networking, educational programming, tax incentive programs, and local fundraising. The regional case study surveyed via mail those who own 5 or more acres of forestland in 14 Southwest Virginia Appalachian counties to understand extent to which they are interested in forest farming or leasing land for forest farming. We had a response rate of 28.9% and found 45% of forest landowners, owning 47% of the forestland, were interested in forest farming. Those that were likely to lease their land accounted for 36% of all respondents and owned 43% of the forestland. Further, those who were interested did not differ based on demographic and land characteristics. Our study reveals the contemporary state of NTFP livelihoods combines markets sales with broader homesteading objectives and that lifestyle and environmental motivators are an increasing focus as newcomers take roots in the region. Further, communities may be able to draw upon the cultural and natural capital around NTFPs as well as the strong social capital often present in rural communities to further invest in social networking, education, financial incentives, and funding to support NTFP livelihood development. Finally, forest farming and leasing of land for this practice is of considerable and broad appeal to forestland owners in Southwest Virginia, which may indicate possibilities for a critical mass to supply a growing demand for sustainably sourced and quality NTFP raw materials. / Doctor of Philosophy / In recent decades Appalachia has experienced socioeconomic challenges with lack of employment opportunities, high poverty levels and the resulting outmigration of residents, especially youth, in search of work. At the same time newcomers are migrating into the area drawn by the culture and natural environment, which is shifting the social fabric of the region. It is in this new context that communities are asked to develop livelihood opportunities using what is available to them. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have been harvested in the wild for generations in Appalachia and offer one avenue of possibility, especially as the market has begun to support higher prices for raw materials that meet the increasing consumer demand for sustainability and quality. Within these new dynamics we set out to understand contemporary uses of NTFPs in Appalachia, and what motivates people to work with these species, as well as community perceptions about how to develop NTFP livelihood opportunities, and the extent to which Appalachian residents are interested in forest farming (the cultivation or stewardship of NTFPs in an existing forest). Our study reveals the contemporary state of NTFP livelihoods combines markets sales with broader homesteading objectives and that lifestyle and environmental motivators are an increasing focus as newcomers take roots in the region. Further, communities may be able to draw upon the cultural and natural capital around NTFPs as well as the strong social and human capital often present in rural communities to further invest in social networking, education, financial incentives, and funding to support NTFP livelihood development. Finally, forest farming and leasing of land for this practice is of considerable and broad appeal to forestland owners in Southwest Virginia, which may indicate possibilities for a critical mass to supply a growing demand for sustainably sourced and quality NTFP raw materials.

The Allium tricoccum Aiton (ramps, aka wild leeks), a native spring ephemeral, is a cultural keystone species in Appalachia, a mountainous physiographic region encompassing 205,000 square miles of the eastern United States. People in Appalachia have long harvested ramps in the wild. However, growing demand for the plant in and outside the region has increased harvesting, resulting in threats to native populations. Agroforestry cultivation techniques and technical support for sustained-yield forest farming practices are needed to conserve ramps and meet increasing demand. Various techniques for assessing suitable production practices for ramps were explored in this dissertation, particularly examining best-suited ramp ecotypes, mycorrhizal treatment, and habitat suitability determination. In the first study, bulbs and seeds from diverse Appalachian locations were gathered and transplanted to a common experimental site to investigate the effects of different ramp ecotypes on growth, survival, and stress responses. Plant characteristics and stress measurements were recorded before transplantation and post-transplantation assessments. Specifically, the study investigated the germination rate of three ramp seed ecotypes and the growth, survival, and stress responses of eight native ramp bulb ecotypes and three commercially obtained seedling samples. Results indicated that above-ground growth, survival, and stress response on the ramp ecotypes differed significantly. The second study explored the impact of mycorrhizae on ramps and was evaluated by assessing the impact of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) inoculation on Allium tricoccum. Four measurements, collectively referred to as parameter categories, were assessed. These included measures of 1) above-ground plant growth: leaf length, and leaf width; 2) stress measurement: transplant stress after a few days of transplant, and photosynthetic performance stress after a year of transplant; 3) survival analysis; and 4) mycorrhizal colonization rate. For each parameter category, three treatment comparison categories were conducted: 1) Positive control treatments: bulbs were planted from their native environment without treatment; 2) Negative controls: bulbs were treated with fungicide before planting to eradicate existing AMF in roots; and 3) The test group: bulbs were inoculated with commercial AMF (Atriva 500). Results indicated that mycorrhizal inoculation could increase ramp leaf length (P≤0.03). However, the impact varied by ecotype, highlighting the importance of considering local environmental conditions and ramp ecotype. Mycorrhizal inoculation did not impact ramp growth at the seedling stage. Mycorrhizal treatment increased the transplanted ramp's survival and stress tolerance (P≤0.001). The third study used multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM), the Analytic Hierarchical Process (AHP), and weighted linear combinations to model suitable habitats for ramps production. Ten habitat criteria were chosen (including five soil properties, three topographic parameters, and two land use properties) to assess the potential for growing ramps in seven counties in Virginia, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina. The percentage of highly suitable areas for ramps production in the studied counties ranges from 21.5% in Haywood County to 49.6% in Macon County. Similarly, moderately suitable areas range from 36.7% in Macon County to 54.5% in Lawrence County. Ground truthing was performed to validate the model. Ramp patch locations within each county were geocoded in the final suitability maps. Existing ramp patches were within the model's estimate of moderate to high site suitability ranges, suggesting the model is valid. Results of the study suggest that site suitability modeling could be useful for producers interested in growing ramps in forest farm settings across Appalachia. / Doctor of Philosophy / The ramp, also known as the wild leek, is an important food, medicinal and cultural resource for the people of Appalachia. However, increasing demand for ramps beyond this region has led to over-harvesting and threatens the plant's native populations. Appropriate cultivation techniques and technical support for sustained-yield forest farming practices are needed to conserve ramps and meet growing demand. This dissertation explores various techniques for assessing suitable production practices for ramps, including examining ramp ecotypes, mycorrhizal treatments, and habitat suitability determination. The first study evaluated the ecotypic variation among ramps collected from different geographic regions and their impact on plant performance. Ramp ecotypes displayed differences in above-ground growth, survival, and stress response. The second study examined the impact of mycorrhizae on ramps and found that mycorrhizal inoculation can increase ramp leaf length and survival and stress tolerance of transplanted ramps. However, this impact varied by ecotype, highlighting the importance of considering local environmental conditions and ramp ecotype. The third study involved developing a model to identify suitable habitats for growing ramps. The model was tested for seven counties across Virginia, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina. The percentage of land predicted as highly suitable for ramps production ranged from 21.5% in Haywood County, NC, to 49.6% in Macon County, NC. Moderately suitable lands ranged from 36.7% in Macon County, NC to 54.5% in Lawrence County, PA. Ground truthing confirmed the model's accuracy as geocoded existing ramp patch locations fell within the estimated suitable ranges. Site suitability modeling could be useful for people interested in growing ramps in forest farm settings across Appalachia. Overall, this research provides insights into best practices for ramp cultivation that help conserve a cultural keystone species and meet the growing demand for ramps.

Due to the current increase in lake water total organic carbon (LW-TOC), many studies have investigated the long-term dynamics using lake sediments. However, these have mainly been focused on Sweden’s south and south-central parts. Thus, this study aimed to investigate how LW-TOC concentrations in northern freshwater systems have changed over the recent few centuries and what effect potential trends or patterns may have on mercury (Hg). A multi-proxy study was conducted that included geochemical characteristics, inferred LW-TOC, chlorophyll a, and land-use observations acting as a supplement to modern land-use changes. The results show that LW-TOC concentrations display tendencies to a decreasing trend in the deepest part of the sediment, which could be related to traditional land-use activities. This is followed by a more rapid decrease reaching equally low LW-TOC concentrations as in southern and south-central Sweden, here suggested being caused by catchment disturbances superimposed by acid deposition. During the recent decades, LW-TOC displayed increasing concentrations, possibly due to the combined effect of the reduction of the abovementioned factors, but also likely to be superimposed by an increase in temperature similar to what has been shown for Canadian lakes. These results align broadly with lakes in southern and south-central Sweden, although with potentially different forcings in the earliest part of the sediment. This contemporary increase in LW-TOC is accompanied by an increase in Hg in two lakes, with both LW-TOC and Chl-a show possible relations.