Thesis (M.S.) University of Missouri-Columbia, 2006. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file viewed on (May 20, 2007) Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

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The entire thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file; a non-technical public abstract appears in the public.pdf file. Title from PDF of title page (University of Missouri--Columbia, viewed on November 17, 2009). Thesis advisor: Dr. C. Mark Cowell. Includes bibliographical references.

This study first explored the rate of forest deforestation in Shamva resettlement areas. It then identified and estimated the extent to which these resettled farmers depend on forest for their livelihoods. Evaluation of farmer perceptions on management issues and willingness to participate in indigenous forest conservation and the socio-economic and institutional factors which affect their willingness to participate were also done. Finally the study sought to identify incentives for forests conservation. The study was conducted in Shamva district in Mashonaland Central province. And the respondents were stratified into three groups: A1, A2 and Old resettlement models. The three models differ on how they were implemented and supported which might render them to have different deforestation rates, livelihood strategies and forest dependency. A total of 247 respondents were surveyed, consisting of 98 A1 farmers, 50 A2 farmers and 99 Old resettled farmers. The data was collected using GIS and remote sensing, structured questionnaire interviews and direct observation. The data was analysed using descriptive analysis, KAP analytic framework and binary logistic regression analysis. The land cover/changes results revealed that both deforestation and afforestation are taking place in Shamva resettlement. Woodland and bushland were decreasing, croplands were also decreasing. However woodland dense and grasslands were increasing. Deforestation was found to be as a result of the resettled farmers’ livelihood strategies which were found to be diverse and agriculture being dominant in all models. All the farmers depended on the forest but at varying levels of 19 percent for Old and 14 percent forA1 and 0.02 percent for A2 resettle farmers. 84 percent of the interviewed farmers however, indicated that they are willing to conserve forest with A1 farmers being the highest followed by A2 86 percent and lastly Old resettled farmers at 76.8 percent. Results of the binary regression model revealed that the significant factors which explain willingness to participate in indigenous forest conservation are age, marital status, education, gender, institution, culture and belief, employment and household size. The highest preferred incentive was the provision of free seedlings and the lowest was out grower scheme. The study recommends that GIS and remote sensing should be used to monitor deforestation, off farm projects be encouraged, exotic and indigenous trees be promoted and forest conservation education be promoted in resettlement areas.

M.Ed. / Over a period of approximately one hundred years, the South African forestry industry has grown into one of great importance to the national economy with significant international interests. In order to produce a balance of economic efficiency, ecological sustainability and social empowerment to meet the needs of present and future generations, forest resources and associated lands need to be managed effectively. This research aims to investigate and identify trends in the development of sustainable forest management in the South African forest industry. A significant development in recent years has been the emergence of certification. This is intended to ensure sustainable forest management. Certification entails independent and ongoing assessment (auditing) of an organisation's forest management practices, to measure compliance against a range of nationally and internationally recognised social, economic and ecological standards Forestry workers remain largely uneducated and poorly paid and there has been a trend to employ contract labour over the past few years. This research aims to determine the level of environmental literacy of forest workers and to discover to what extent the workers are aware of the problems facing forestry. A combined qualitative and quantitative approach was adopted. The researcher engaged in qualitative observations and open-ended interviews with a number of informants. A quantitative questionnaire was distributed to a sample of forestry workers drawn from three groups. These comprised workers from Komatiland Forestry, Global Forest Products and a group of small independent contractors and sub-contractors. A total of 141 questionnaires were completed and analysed. The results indicated that while forestry practices were generally understood, and correct procedures were followed, a deeper understanding of environmental matters was superficial. The living standards of most of the respondents were found to be poor. This could negatively effect the implementation of sustainable forest development. This research combined a quantitative analysis of the responses to the questionnaire with a qualitative analysis of focused interviews and discussions with various stakeholders in the forestry industry. This provided a broader understanding of the trends in the industry. The forestry industry was found to be in a state of flux. Of the two large companies involved in the research, Global Forest Products had only recently been bought out from Mondi and Komatiland, a state owned forestry company was facing an uncertain future while undergoing the privatisation process. Conditions concerning the workers were generally found to be poor. This was largely due to the companies absolving themselves of social responsibilities. In order to produce a balance of economic efficiency, environmental sustainability and social empowerment a new vision for the forestry industry is needed. This requires the combined efforts of the government, the corporate sector as well as other role players such as labour unions, non-governmental institutions and the general public.

Leptographium have been known since the early part of the 20th Century and include of many species causing blue stain of timber. Among these species are several species known or believed to be involved in causing diseases of trees. Leptographium spp. occur mainly on conifers and many species are recognized as anamorphs of Ophiostoma. Similar to Ophiostoma, Leptographium spp. are closely associated with insects. Their morphology thus reflects this association, and they thus have upright conidiophores with slimy masses that are produced in beetle galleries. Leptographium spp. are morphologically very similar to each other and this makes their accurate identification difficult. The first part of this thesis, presents dichotomous, as well as synoptic keys for the identification of these species. These keys are supported by comprehensive descriptions accompanied by both photographs and line drawings. The second part of this thesis. deals with several key taxonomic questions pertaining to Leptographium. Chapter one represents a phylogenetic study of the majority of species in Leptographium. Morphological characters were coded and analyzed. The results of the molecular and the morphological analyses are compared to determine whether any morphological characters might be used to infer phylogeny. The results indicate that morphology does not infer phylogenetic relatedness. Chapter two represents a comparison between Leptographium abietinum and L. engelmannii. These species are morphologically similar, and various authors have suggested that they are synonyms. Based on morphology, L. engelmanni was synonomised with L. abietinum. Furthermore, examination of various atypical isolates led to the description of the new species, L. hughesii. In chapter three, Ophiostoma europhioides, O. piceaperdum and Ceratocystis pseudoeurophioides are compared. These species have Leptographium anamorphs and are morphologically identical. Both O. europhioides and C. pseudoeurophioides are synonymised with O. piceaperdum, and a name is provided for the anamorph of O. piceaperdum. Chapter four represents a re-evaluation of Phialocepha/a phycomyces. The inconspicuous collarettes, characteristic of this fungus, are unlike the deep¬seated collarettes of the type species of Phialocepha/a (P. dimorphospora). Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed that conidiogenesis in P. phycomyces is phialidic, placing this species among other Phialocephala spp. However, P. phycomyces is able to tolerate high concentrations of cycloheximide, characteristic of Leptographium spp. DNA analysis indicates that this species does not belong in either Phialocepha/a or Leptographium. A new genus Kendrickiella is described to accommodate this species. In chapter five, a new species of Leptographium, L. eucalyptophilum, is described. This species is unique in that it occurs on Eucalyptus, which is an unusual host for this species. In addition, this species is one of several described from tropical regions and it is apparently adapted to this habitat. Chapter six represents a critical re-evaluation of isolates identified as L. procerum. Morphological comparison of these isolates revealed that L. procerum sensu lato, represents more than one taxon. From this study, three new species of Leptographium were described. These are L. alethinum, L. pityophilum and L. euphyes. These species can easily be distinguished from L. procerum s. str. and their incorrect identification is probably as a result of their shared habitat. In chapter seven, I describe an additional three species of Leptographium. Like most other Leptographium spp., these were isolated from conifers. The first of these, L. pineti, originates from Indonesia. The other two species is found in high elevation sites in Eastern North America. These are L. abicolens and L. peucophilum. These species are unique in that they are associated with the conifer swift moth, which is an unusual insect associate of Leptographium. Chapter eighth presents a description of a new species of Leptographium from Russia. This species, L. sibiricum, is associated with staining and mortality in siberian fir (Abies sibirica). The role of the fungus in the disease complex is still unknown, and awaits further study. This thesis represents a comprehensive review of all known, as well as newly described species. It should greatly facilitate plant pathologists and mycologists in the identification of Leptographium spp. This should lead to extensive pathogenicity tests, to determine the economic impact of species in this genus as blue-stain fungi and pathogens. It is my sincere wish that it will renew interest in this group of fungi, and will lead to the description of many more species in this genus. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / Unrestricted

South Africa is not well-endowed with indigenous forests and those that remain are known to be degraded and declining at an alarming rate. This constitutes a direct threat to the quality of life of the resource-poor rural households which are directly dependent on the resources indigenous forests offer, as well as to ecological integrity. It is also recognised that the declining tree resources, particularly the indigenous tree species of high value, are increasingly threatened by a number of growing subsistence demands. This emphasises the need to establish, cultivate and conserve high-value tree species. Community forestry is recognised as a viable option for optimising land productivity; reducing pressure on indigenous forests and woodlands; ensuring a sustainable supply of desired tree products and services; and improving the quality of life of the resource-poor rural households. The primary purpose of Community Forestry Development (CFD) in the Hlabisa District is the provision of an information service and of technical support to enhance the livelihoods of rural communities by means of tree-related resources. Community forestry mainly focuses on tree resources that form an integral part of or contribute to rural people’s livelihoods. This includes small-scale growers (woodlots), woodlands and indigenous forests. Community forestry can be defined as tree growing and managed by the people for the people. Community forestry encompasses a wide range of activities which include farm forestry, agroforestry, village planting, woodlots, woodland management and indigenous-forest management by rural people, as well as tree planting in urban and peri-urban areas. Natural forests in South Africa account for less than 1 percent of the total land area. It has been suggested that these natural forests will no longer be able to meet the demand for forest products by 2020. The KwaZulu Department of Agriculture and Forestry embarked on community forestry in 1976 (but only on an ad hoc basis) as a possible solution to this dilemma. Later, the two South African pulp and paper giants, SAPPI and Mondi, started the Project Grow and Khulanathi Schemes respectively. One of the objectives of out-grower schemes was to encourage rural communities to plant trees on their own lands for the economic, social and environmental benefits trees offer. For example, timber could be sold to forestry companies. Financial assistance was offered to these communities to encourage implementation of such schemes. This exercise was aimed at bringing economic activity, capacity- building and community empowerment to the rural areas. The growers would benefit from the financial assistance and the readily available market provided by the company, while the company would be able to satisfy its demand for timber.

Diminishing virgin timber on the Coast of British Columbia leads to consideration as to how management of the second-growth forests will supply the timber industry with a sufficient quantity of good quality raw material in the future. One of the possibilities would be intensive forest management supported by thinnings. The stands of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Rafn.) Sarg.), which comprise the largest area on the Coast, may be suited to this treatment because of their advantageous silvicultural characteristics. Little information exists on proper methods of thinning these hemlock stands. In addition, experience in logging methods and means of economically handling small logs are lacking. Among the few experiments which have been established to study thinning of hemlock, one is located on East Thurlow Island where nearly pure stands of hemlock occur. The Research Forest on the Island was scheduled to become an experimental and demonstration area for the study of thinning techniques. Studies under way on that area have shown that the methods used, had limited economic success. Commercial thinning operations turned out to be unprofitable partly because there was no adequate road system available for logging. Thinning problems in general, as well as the particular aspect of thinning western hemlock and the methods of handling small logs are discussed in this thesis to illustrate the basic problems involved in a development plan for the Research Forest. Finally, this thesis presents a general road development plan for the Research Forest area and proposes a preliminary management and logging plan. Through cost analysis it is shown that the basic access road system can be constructed economically during a preparatory period by clearcutting scattered overmature stands. Subsequent thinning experiments can be based on that road network. The approach to these problems is general rather than specific because there are few detailed data available from past experiments. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Part I covers the historical development of practices and policy in the forestry sector of the Ghana economy. The introduction of forestry into a country that had just settled down to agriculture reveals the struggle between commercial and subsistence agriculture on the one hand, and commercial forestry on the other. The application of a policy that does not take full cognizance of local land ownership externalities heightened the conflict between the two major forms of land use. The analysis in this thesis shows that land reforms are required if enough land is to be put under forestry, and if soil conservation practices are to be adopted by farmers. Foundations on which classical forestry is built and principles of perpetual forestry as advocated by FAO and Commonweath Forestry Conferences are examined and criticized. Economic forces are recognized as determinants of the permanence of forests. The importance of the agricultural sector in the development of the industrial sector of the country is stressed. The role of the Ghana Cocoa Marketing Board and the Ghana Timber Marketing Board is criticized. It is concluded that both boards should allow market forces to determine economic values for agricultural and forest products; and that farmers' earnings should be appropriated by them in the first instance to allow for a rise in agricultural earnings which alone can create effective demand locally for forest products. Part II covers current practices in the forestry sector. Conduct of research, problems of industrialization in the light of existing tariff walls raised by the rich markets of the developed countries as well as the problems associated with an underdeveloped, low income economy, are surveyed. It is shown that the economy requires to be pushed forward on all fronts: research; skills; capital formation and markets, if effective industrialization of the forestry sector is to be undertaken. While the concept of maximum sustained yield has been rejected, the thesis does not unconditionally accept the objective of maximizing net gains from forest lands. The thesis accepts that forest policy has to be subordinated to the national economic policy objective of maximizing the national product per capita. Integrating national development and forestry plans ensures that the welfare of the people of Ghana can be maximized. The 'taungya' system of agric-silviculture has been analyzed and criticized. In its place plantation forestry aimed at creating man-made blocks of forests of commercial value is recommended. Integrated utilization of forest raw materials has been noted as leading to the maximization of the contribution of the forestry sector to the national economy. To ensure supplies of raw material to local mills, a Log Export Control Committee has been suggested. Finally, the thesis criticizes the practice whereby forest policy formulation is undertaken by the Forestry Department alone. The urgency of economic development, and the need for subordinating forest policy to national economic policy as well as integrating the two policies, require that, in addition to the forest service, other bodies with interests in the forests should be represented. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

The practice of sustained-yield forest management requires the formulation of management plans designed to ensure the economic efficiency of the forest enterprise. Consequently a knowledge of the volume and value of timber in forest stands is of the utmost importance to foresters engaged in sustained-yield management. In this thesis an analysis of the quantity and value of the product yield from four natural stands of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) in British Columbia has been made. Average stand ages were 63, 86, 106 and 145 years with heights at 100 years of 160, 165, 175 and 165 feet, respectively. Logging and milling costs for what is regarded as typical coastal British Columbia operations were derived from the literature and from local sources. Lumber yields and values presented were obtained from the results of four mill studies of sample logs from the above stands. Value and volume of plywood and piling products obtainable were ascertained from the literature and from local sources. Linear programming techniques were used to determine the optimum joint-product yield from each of the stands. Financial rotations at two levels of establishment costs, and three interest rates, were examined and mathematical models of the relationship between tree value, tree volume and biological variables are presented. It was found that the net value per cubic foot of tree increased with tree size because of reduced handling costs per unit volume and better quality yield in the larger trees. At the level of costs and values used, and within limits of grade specifications, it is more profitable to produce piling from small trees, and plywood from large trees, rather than lumber. The linear programming solution to optimum product yield indicated that optimum conversion return for all stands was 5 cents per cubic foot greater than the lumber conversion return. Financial rotations, at 3 per cent compound interest on establishment costs and on the value of the growing stock, are between 60 and 70 years for these sites. At 65 years the margin for profit and risk in these stands varied from $1400 to $2000 per acre, increasing with degree of stocking. An increase in establishment costs did not affect the rotation age but reduced the net value per acre of the stand. Increasing the interest rate reduced both the rotation age and the net value per acre of the stand. Many biological variables were found to be significantly correlated with tree value and volume. However, regression models using only two or three variables were statistically as good as, and, from a practical point of view, much better than more involved models. Combinations of dbh, butt-log grade and crown class were the best two or three variable models for value prediction. Tree dbh and D²H rendered similar estimates of board-and cubic-foot volumes. It is considered that the volume and value of timber from these sites could be substantially increased by intensive forest management and complete utilisation of the productive capacity of the land. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate