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In interpretations of The Dance of Life (1899-1900) by Edvard Munch, the femme fragile and the femme fatale have been considered jointly (i.e. as allusions to the cyclicality of life) or as individuals. Their unique characteristics have been recognized as such: whereas the femme fragile dons white to signify her prepubescent state and thus her innocence, the femme fatale wears red to suggest her sexuality and even her availability. Yet, scholars have failed to probe their iconographical complexities. Doing so would not only lend greater conviction to Munch’s historical identity as a Symbolist (as his archetypes would be recognized for their multivalence), but it would also reveal the didactic possibilities of the work of art itself. Given this void in the literature, the purpose of this thesis will be to elaborate on the formal and narrative qualities of the femme fragile and femme fatale in this painting. These archetypes ultimately allude to misogynistic anxieties, with the femme fragile in particular representing the sickly female body. / Art History

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is identified by abnormal dendrite morphology and altered synaptic protein expression. Astrocyte secreted factors such as Tenascin C (TNC), may contribute to the synaptic changes, including maturation of the synapse. TNC is a known endogenous ligand of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) that has been shown to induce the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6). At the molecular level, elevated IL-6 promotes excitatory synapse formation and increases dendrite spine length. With these molecular changes linked to the phenotype of FXS, we examined the expression and the mechanism of the endogenous TLR4 activator TNC, and its downstream target IL-6 in astrocytes from the FMR1 KO mouse model. Secreted TNC and IL-6 were significantly increased in FMR1 KO astrocytes. Exogenous TNC and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation of TLR4 induced secreted IL-6, whereas the antagonist of TLR4 (LPS-RS) had an opposing effect. Cortical protein expression of TNC and IL-6 were also significantly elevated in the postnatal FMR1 KO mouse. These results identify TNC as an endogenous ligand of TLR4, capable of effecting IL-6 secretion by astrocytes. In addition, there was an increase in the number of VGLUT1/PSD95 positive synaptic puncta of both WT and FMR1 KO neurons when plated with astrocyte conditioned media from FMR1 KO astrocytes, compared to those plated with media from wild type astrocytes. By assessing the cellular mechanisms involved, a novel therapeutic option could be made available to target abnormalities of synaptic function seen in FXS. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are neurodevelopmental disorders which arise from genetic and environmental factors. In the brain, a type of cell called the astrocyte is responsible for proper brain growth and development. Astrocytes release factors that promote inflammation, causing disruption of brain functions that control learning, memory and behaviour. Such factors released by astrocytes are capable of binding to their receptors, in turn impacting downstream targets, which have physiological effects. This research used various biological and genetic techniques to determine if the mechanism of an astrocyte-specific factor called Tenascin C (TNC) is impaired in the Fragile X mouse model. In a normal astrocyte, TNC with its binding partner is able to release molecules responsible for inflammation. Such molecules have been shown to increase the number synapses, where neurons and astrocytes exchange information, to control brain function. This proposed research would be the first to determine a role for TNC in ASDs. By assessing the cellular mechanisms involved between TNC and its binding partner, a novel therapeutic option could be made available in ASDs.

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is caused by the instability of a CGG-repeated tract at the 5’ end of the Fmr1 transcript. This instability causes silencing of the gene coding for FMRP. Higher levels of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, and protein oxidation within brain tissue have been found to be associated with the disease. These imbalances, along with altered levels of components of the glutathione system, provide evidence for increased oxidative stress. Astrocytes, glial cells within the brain, have many functions within neurodevelopment. Specifically, they regulate growth and synaptic contacts of neurons, regulate the level of excitability of synapses, and protect neurons at high levels of activity. To protect neurons from oxidative stress, astrocytes maintain oxidative homeostasis through their mitochondrial electron transport and antioxidant systems. This study examines the relationship between oxidative stress and FXS by assessing mitochondrial function and the antioxidant system of astrocytes. Using the Fmr1 knockout (KO) mouse model, mitochondrial respiration, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was analyzed in cultured cortical astrocytes. Astrocytes collected from male and female mice were analyzed under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions. In addition, western blots were conducted on both cortical tissue and cultured cortical astrocytes to determine potential differences in enzyme expression. Results indicate elevations of leak state respiration and ROS production in Fmr1 KO cultured cortical astrocytes alongside alterations in antioxidant and NADPH-oxidase expression. Characterization of mitochondrial function and the antioxidant system of astrocytes will be highly valuable to the understanding of glial roles during brain development and could provide future insight to direct clinically relevant studies of FXS and other neurodevelopment disorders. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is the most common genetic cause of intellectual disability. It is characterized by the loss of FMRP, an important protein in brain development. Within the FXS brain there is evidence of oxidative stress. The cells that maintain oxidative homeostasis in the brain are astrocytes. Astrocytes are glial cells important for brain development. This thesis evaluated astrocytes' ability to maintain oxidative homeostasis in the FXS cortex. The findings of this thesis provide important insights into our understanding of FXS pathology and will help direct clinically relevant studies of FXS and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

The human body is home to complex microbial communities that are fundamental to our physiology. Utilizing mouse models, behavior assays, gene expression analyses, and probiotic interventions, this research explores the intricate relationship between the gut microbiome, the central nervous system, and the immune system. I discuss a strain of Escherichia coli Nissle engineered to produce serotonin, revealing its impact on gut function and immune response. I also evaluate butyrate’s potential to alleviate symptoms of Fragile X Syndrome, highlighting the gut-brain axis. Additionally, I study a strain of Bifidobacterium adolescentis and its role in metabolizing bile acids and modulating host immune cells and stress. Collectively, these studies address the complex interplay between the gut microbiome and host health and behavior, illuminating the therapeutic potential of microbiome manipulation and setting the stage for novel interventions in neurodevelopmental disorders and immune function regulation.

No / This book primarily focuses on the emerging centrality of policing in transition societies, that is, conflict-prone, war-torn, and post-conflict communities. Policing in fragile, failed, and collapsed states has emerged as a critical driver for national development, provision of public goods such as security, democratic consolidation and the maintenance of sustainable peace, but at the same time perpetuators of insecurity and underdevelopment in contemporary Africa. An important aspect of the emerging centrality of policing in the increasing interest in the concept and practice of Community Policing that is gathering momentum across the continent.

Yes / Group I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) dependent long-term depression (LTD) is a major form of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory. The molecular mechanisms involved in mGluR-LTD have been investigated intensively for the last two decades. In this 60th anniversary special issue article, we review the recent advances in determining the mechanisms that regulate the induction, transduction and expression of mGluR-LTD in the hippocampus, with a focus on the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. In particular we discuss the requirement of p38 MAPK and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK 1/2) activation. The recent advances in understanding the signaling cascades regulating mGluR-LTD are then related to the cognitive impairments observed in neurological disorders, such as fragile X syndrome and Alzheimer's disease.

La connaissance des mécanismes de régulation des gènes est essentielle pour combattre certaines maladies et pour comprendre certains concepts biologiques importants. L'utilisation de nouvelles technologies qui permettent d'analyser les gènes en tenant compte de la complexité de l'environnement intracellulaire contribue efficacement à élucider ces mécanismes. Dans la première partie de notre travail, nous avons optimisé le fonctionnement d'une de ces technologies, la réaction de polymérisation en chaîne permise par un adaptateur (ligation-mediated polymerase chain reaction, LMPCR), et en avons facilité l'application, surtout pour les séquences difficiles à analyser. Nous avons par la suite utilisée cette technique pour caractériser le promoteur du gène du retard mental lié à l'X fragile-1 et celui du récepteur B1 des bradykinines à même le noyau de cellules vivantes. Pour ces deux gènes, nous avons identifié les éléments de séquences qui sont associés à la régulation de leur transcription et proposé des mécanismes de régulation de la transcription.

La famille des protéines Fragile X Related (FXR) comprend la protéine FMRP ainsi que les homologues FXR1P et FXR2P. En plus d'une forte homologie de séquence, tous les membres de cette famille de protéines possèdent des domaines caractéristiques aux molécules liant l'ARN ainsi que des signaux d'importation et d'exportation nucléaire. FMRP est l’archétype de cette famille de protéine, puisque son absence cause le retard mental avec X Fragile. Par contre, aucune pathologie n’est associée avec la perte d’expression des homologues FXR1P et FXR2P et ce, même si ces deux protéines ont été mises en évidence dans des processus développementaux chez la souris. En effet, cette famille de protéines semble jouer un rôle primordial durant l’embryogenèse, puisque la délétion de FMR1 et FXR2 provoque des troubles cognitifs, alors que FXR1 semble plutôt jouer un rôle dans la myogenèse et la spermatogenèse chez les mammifères. Cette diversification fonctionnelle de FXR1 semble être attribuable à l’expression complexe de ses différentes isoformes. En effet, chez les mammifères, quatre des six isoformes de FXR1P (70, 74, 78 et 80 kDa) sont exprimées dans tous les tissus à l’exception des muscles striés et cardiaques où elles sont remplacées par deux isoformes dites « muscle spécifique » (82 et 84 kDa). Le nombre élevé d’isoformes de FXR1 rend cette protéine difficile à étudier chez les mammifères. Cette expression de FXR1 est hautement conservée chez tous les vertébrés et peut être décelée chez plusieurs organismes tels le poulet, le poisson zèbre ainsi que chez la grenouille Xenopus laevis. Le xénope s’avère être le modèle exemplaire, puisque l’expression de xFxr1 y est beaucoup plus simple et ce, tout en conservant l’expression tissu spécifique de ces isoformes. En effet, seule une isoforme de 84 kDa est exprimée dans tous les tissus à l’exception des muscles striés et cardiaques où il y a expression d’une isoforme de 88 kDa. Étant donné le rôle dans les cellules musculaires striées, il est impératif de comprendre les implications de l’inactivation de ce gène chez les vertébrés. / Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP) is part of a mRNA-binding proteins family that includes the Fragile X Related 1 and 2 proteins (FXR1P and FXR2P). These proteins share multiple functional domains typical of mRNA-binding domain (two KH domains and 1 RGG box) as well as a nuclear and a cytoplasmic localization domain. Whereas absence of FMRP is the cause of Fragile X Mental Retardation in human, it is not known whether FXR1P and FXR2P are associated to any pathology and whether these homologous proteins can compensate for the absence of FMRP in the case of the Fragile X syndrome. Knockout mice for FXR proteins are powerful tools that are commonly used in research to shed light on the functions of these proteins and point out their embryonic involvement. However, the Fxr1 knockout mouse didn’t proved to be a good model as the two mentioned above. In mammals, we have shown that FXR1 play a key role in muscle differentiation, since two of the six isoforms are muscle specific and are believed to be essential for the normal development of the cardiac and skeletal muscle. Although essential for embryonic development, it is nearly impossible to study the developmental implication of the differential expression of these tissues specific proteins in mammals due to the large number of FXR1P isoform. Simpler model such as drosophila melanogaster are being used, but this model have only one proteins (dFMRP) which is expressed ubiquitously in this organism and do not represent the tissue specific expression of some of the family member. We choose an intermediate model such as Xenopus laevis, which is an extensively used model for developmental studies, and proceeded with the inactivation of xFxr1. In Xenopus laevis, we found two different xFxr1 proteins isoform; one short isoform (84 KDa) is ubiquitously expressed in every tissues except in muscle, whereas the long isoform (88 KDa) is expressed only in cardiac and skeletal muscle. Specific inactivation of xFxr1 messengers during the early development gave us new insight on the specific functions of these proteins during the embryogenesis and primary myogenesis.

Titre de l'écran-titre (visionné le 26 juin 2023) / FMRP (Fragile X mental retardation protein) est une protéine de liaison à l'ARN dont l'absence cause le développement du syndrome du X fragile avec retard mental (FXS). Ceci serait dû en partie à la perte de la fonction traductionnelle des formes cytoplasmiques de la protéine. Des isoformes nucléaires de FMRP (nFMRP) ont également été identifiées. Cependant, leurs fonctions demeurent très peu étudiées. Ces isoformes ont été localisées au sein de structure nucléaire de traitement de l'ARN, les corps de Cajal. De plus, nos investigations ont impliqué nFMRP dans la réponse cellulaire aux dommages à l'ADN identifiant nFMRP comme étant un antagoniste de la formation de structures d'instabilité génomique et empêchant l'accumulation des dommages à l'ADN associé. Toutefois, les mécanismes sous-jacents impliquant nFMRP et ses interacteurs demeurent inconnus. L'hypothèse est que nFMRP interagit avec des partenaires nucléaires impliqués dans le métabolisme de l'ARN et dans la signalisation du dommage à l'ADN afin de maintenir l'intégrité génomique cellulaire. Les objectifs sont d'identifier les partenaires de nFMRP chez l'humain et de caractériser leur interaction. Ce travail a permis de localiser nFMRP au sein de sites de réparation du dommage à l'ADN, les foyers de Fanconi et d'investiguer l'effet de la protéine sur les R-loops. Finalement, mes travaux ont identifié la protéine DDX5, une hélicase à ARN, réparant les dommages à l'ADN par la résolution de R-loops, comme étant le premier partenaire de nFMRP. Ce résultat permet de définir le rôle joué par nFMRP dans le maintien de la stabilité génomique. Des études de mutagenèses permettront de caractériser le mécanisme entre nFMRP et DDX5 et de futures analyses de protéomique à large spectre permettront d'établir le premier interactome de nFMRP. Ce travail permettra d'ouvrir des avenues de recherche dans la perspective de mieux comprendre les fonctions de nFMRP ainsi que la physiopathologie du FXS. / FMRP (Fragile X mental retardation protein) is an RNA-binding protein whose absence causes the development of Fragile X syndrome with mental retardation (FXS). This would be due in part to the loss of the translational function of the cytoplasmic forms of the protein. Nuclear isoforms of FMRP (nFMRP) have also been identified. However, their functions remain very little studied. These isoforms have been localized within the nuclear RNA processing structure, the Cajal bodies. Furthermore, our investigations implicated nFMRP in the DNA damage cellular response, identifying nFMRP as an antagonist of the formation of genomic instability structures and preventing the accumulation of associated DNA damage. However, the underlying mechanisms involving nFMRP and its interactors remain unknown. The hypothesis is that nFMRP interacts with nuclear partners involved in RNA metabolism and DNA damage signaling to maintain cellular genomic integrity. The objectives are to identify the partners of nFMRP in humans and to characterize their interaction. This work made it possible to locate nFMRP within DNA damage repair sites, the Fanconi foci, and to investigate the effect of the protein on R-loops. Finally, my work identified the protein DDX5, an RNA helicase, repairing DNA damage by resolving R-loops, as the first partner of nFMRP. This result makes it possible to define the role played by nFMRP in the maintenance of genomic stability. Mutagenesis studies will characterize the mechanism between nFMRP and DDX5 and future broad-spectrum proteomic analyzes will establish the first interactome of nFMRP. This work will open avenues of research to better understanding the functions of nFMRP as well as the pathophysiology of FXS.