Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O município de Mucajaí (área foco deste estudo) está situado na região centro-oeste do Estado de Roraima. A análise da paisagem do município de Mucajaí (objeto desse estudo) teve como enfoque os aspectos geológicos e geomorfológicos e o seu potencial para o geoturismo. Para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa, fez-se necessário o levantamento de material bibliográfico, cartográfico e de sensores remotos, bem como atividades de campo com intuito de identificar e descrever os compartimentos geomorfológicos que posteriormente foram cartografados. Como resultado obteve-se a descrição da paisagem no seu contexto geológico e geomorfológico em que identificou-se os modelados de denudação e acumulação. A compartimentação estudada revelou as seguintes unidades: Relevo em Crista Estruturado, essa unidade representa um relevo de erosão diferencial, recoberto por vegetação do tipo Floresta Ombrófila Densa; sobressaíram-se feições como serras, cachoeiras; na Superfície Somital Convexa, distribui-se de forma pontual e isolada por toda superfície aplainada maciços que ocorrem isoladamente, denominados relevos residuais além do Relevo Convexo Estruturado. As áreas rebaixadas são representadas pelas Superfícies Aplainadas e Aluvionares. A paisagem da área estudada revela um grande potencial para a atividade geoturística, a exemplo de serras e morros alinhados e as belas cachoeiras. Portanto, o potencial paisagístico repleto de belezas cênicas naturais favorecem à grandes possibilidades de implantação da atividade geoturística, a partir das iniciativas existentes no município e de um planejamento direcionado a valorização do potencial para sua efetiva operacionalização. / The county of Mucajaí ( focus area of this study ) is located in the central- west region of the state of Roraima . The analysis of the landscape of the county of Mucajaí (subject of this study ) focuses on the geological and geomorphological aspects and its potential for geotourism. To develop the research, it was necessary lifting bibliographic, cartographic and remote sensing equipment, as well as field activities aiming to identify and describe the geomorphological compartments that were subsequently mapped. As a result, we obtained a description of the landscape in its geological and geomorphological context in which we identified the modeled denudation and accumulation. The partitioning study revealed the following units : Relief on Structured Crest, this unit represents a relief of differential erosion, covered by vegetation of Dense Ombrophilous Forest; stood out features such as mountains, waterfalls ; in the Somital Convex Surface, is distributed in a defined and isolated manner throughout massive flat surface that occurs singly , called residual relief beyond relief Structured Convex. The recessed areas are represented by Planed Surfaces and Alluvial . The landscape of the studied area reveals a great potential for geotourism activity, like mountains and hills lined and beautiful waterfalls. Therefore, the potential landscape full of natural scenic beauty favoring a large potential for the deployment of geotourism activity, from existing initiatives in the county and planning aimed at exploiting the potential for its effective operationalization.

<p>Hyporheic exchange is key to buffer water quality and temperatures in streams and rivers, while also providing localized downwelling and upwelling microhabitats. In this research, the effect of geomorphological parameters on hyporheic exchange has been assessed from a physical standpoint: surface and subsurface flow fields, pressure distribution across the sediment/water interface and the residence time in the bed.<br></p><p>First, we conduct a series of numerical simulations to systematically explore how the fractal properties of bedforms are related to hyporheic exchange.We compared the average interfacial flux and residence time distribution in the hyporheic zone with respect to the magnitude of the power spectrum and the fractal dimension of riverbeds. The results show that the average interfacial flux increases logarithmically with respect to the maximum spectral density whereas it increases exponentially with respect to fractal dimension.<br></p><p>Second, we demonstrate how the Froude number affects the free-surface profile, total head over sediment bed and hyporheic flux. When the water surface is fixed,the vertical velocity profile from the bottom to the air-water interface follows the law of the wall so that the velocity at the air-water interface has the maximum value. On the contrary, in the free-surface case, the velocity at the interface no longer has the maximum value: the location having the maximum velocity moves closer to the sediment bed. This results in increasing velocity near the bed and larger head gradients, accordingly.<br></p><p>Third,we investigate how boulder spacing and embeddedness affect the near-bed hydrodynamics and the surface-subsurface water exchange.When the embeddedness is small, the recirculation vortex is observed in both closely-packed and loosely-packed cases, but the size of vortex was smaller and less coherent in the closely-packed case. For these dense clusters, the inverse relationship between embeddedness and flux no longer holds. As embeddedness increases, the subsurface flowpaths move in the lateral direction, as the streamwise route is hindered by the submerged boulder. The average residence time therefore decreases as the embeddedness increases.<br></p><p>Lastly, we propose a general artificial neural network for predicting the pressure field at the channel bottom using point velocities at different level. We constructed three different data-driven models with multivariate linear regression, local linear regression and artificial neural network. The input variable is velocity in x, y, and z directions and the target variable is pressure at the sediment bed. Our artificial neural network model produces consistent and accurate prediction performance under various conditions whereas other linear surrogate models such as linear multivariate regression and local linear multivariate regression significantly depend on input variable.<br></p><p>As restoring streams and rivers has moved from aesthetics and form to a more holistic approach that includes processes, we hope our study can inform designs that benefit both structural and functional outcomes. Our results could inform a number of critical processes, such as biological filtering for example. It is possible to use our approach to predict hyporheic exchange and thus constrain the associated biogeochemical processing under different topographies. As river restoration projects become more holistic, geomorphological, biogeochemical and hydro-ecological aspects should also be considered.<br></p>

No presente trabalho analisam-se os aspectos geomorfológicos de três setores da bacia hidrográfica do rio Cotia, localizada a oeste da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. Foram elaborados mapas com esboço geomorfológicos de cada setor a partir de base cartográfica na escala 1:25.000, imagens de satélite e fotografias aéreas. A análise das fotografias áreas e imagens de satélite, juntamente com a revisão bibliográfica da área de estudo, permitem a identificação e caracterização das feições geomorfológicas, bem como a sua dinâmica no intervalo de 40 anos (1962-2002). A planície fluvial é entendida como um sistema que reflete as mudanças ocorridas na bacia hidrográfica. As feições geomorfológicas estão localizadas na planície de inundação. Considera-se a planície fluvial como leito regular (leito maior). Essa delimitação estabelece o critério para aplicação de Área de preservação Permanente (APP). Os setores (A,B e C) estudados apresentam características geomorfológicas semelhantes. A expansão urbana sobre a planície fluvial dos setores é crescente. Faz-se necessário o estabelecimento de áreas de proteção na planície. A dinâmica fluvial estabelece os limites de expansão da urbanização. / This paper analyses the geomorphological features from three sectors in the Cotia Rivers basin, located in the western part of the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo. Some Maps have even been drawn starting from a cartographic base on the scale of 1:25.000, satellite images and aerial photographs. The scan of the aerial photographs andsatellite images, with a bibliographic review in this study area, allow the identification and characterization of the geomorphological features, as well as their dynamic during 40 years (1962 2002). The fluvial plain is understood how a system that reflects the changes occurring in the basin. The geomorphological features are located at the flood plain. The fluvial plain is considered like a regular riverbed (flood prone width). This delimitation provides criteria to the application of a Permanent Preservation Area (APP). The sectors (A, B and C) were studied contains similar geomorphological characteristics. The urban sprawl on the fluvial plain in the sectors is increase. It is necessary the establishment of protection areas at the plain. The fluvial dynamic establishes the urban sprawl limits.

No presente trabalho analisam-se os aspectos geomorfológicos de três setores da bacia hidrográfica do rio Cotia, localizada a oeste da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. Foram elaborados mapas com esboço geomorfológicos de cada setor a partir de base cartográfica na escala 1:25.000, imagens de satélite e fotografias aéreas. A análise das fotografias áreas e imagens de satélite, juntamente com a revisão bibliográfica da área de estudo, permitem a identificação e caracterização das feições geomorfológicas, bem como a sua dinâmica no intervalo de 40 anos (1962-2002). A planície fluvial é entendida como um sistema que reflete as mudanças ocorridas na bacia hidrográfica. As feições geomorfológicas estão localizadas na planície de inundação. Considera-se a planície fluvial como leito regular (leito maior). Essa delimitação estabelece o critério para aplicação de Área de preservação Permanente (APP). Os setores (A,B e C) estudados apresentam características geomorfológicas semelhantes. A expansão urbana sobre a planície fluvial dos setores é crescente. Faz-se necessário o estabelecimento de áreas de proteção na planície. A dinâmica fluvial estabelece os limites de expansão da urbanização. / This paper analyses the geomorphological features from three sectors in the Cotia Rivers basin, located in the western part of the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo. Some Maps have even been drawn starting from a cartographic base on the scale of 1:25.000, satellite images and aerial photographs. The scan of the aerial photographs andsatellite images, with a bibliographic review in this study area, allow the identification and characterization of the geomorphological features, as well as their dynamic during 40 years (1962 2002). The fluvial plain is understood how a system that reflects the changes occurring in the basin. The geomorphological features are located at the flood plain. The fluvial plain is considered like a regular riverbed (flood prone width). This delimitation provides criteria to the application of a Permanent Preservation Area (APP). The sectors (A, B and C) were studied contains similar geomorphological characteristics. The urban sprawl on the fluvial plain in the sectors is increase. It is necessary the establishment of protection areas at the plain. The fluvial dynamic establishes the urban sprawl limits.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A serra do Tepequém, situada no Município de Amajarí no norte do Estado de Roraima, atraiu um enorme contingente de pessoas no final da década de 30, em virtude de sua riqueza mineral diamantífera, o que promoveu intensa atividade garimpeira. Esta atividade esteve concentrada, sobretudo nas bordas das drenagens, cujas marcas na paisagem são evidenciadas pela retirada da mata ciliar, presença de feições erosivas lineares além do assoreamento dos cursos. Entretanto, apesar das mudanças da paisagem advindas da atividade garimpeira, a serra do Tepequém ostenta um cenário paisagístico que atualmente é muito requisitado para a atividade turística. Essa beleza cênica é atribuída as suas características fisiográficas com destaque para as feições geológicas-geomorfológicas que sustentam e modelam a paisagem local. A crescente atividade turística, praticada de forma desordenada imprime impactos negativos na paisagem e baixo rendimento econômico para a comunidade da serra do Tepequém. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho busca relacionar os aspectos paisagísticos de cunho geológico e geomorfológico da serra do Tepequém e seu potencial para o geoturismo. Visando este entendimento foram realizados os seguintes procedimentos metodológicos: levantamento bibliográfico, cartográfico e de sensores remotos sobre a área de estudo e o segmento geoturístico; aquisição de dados em duas etapas de trabalho de campo (identificação dos pontos geoturísticos, mapeamento de trilhas, entrevistas com ex-garimpeiros) e em gabinete processamento das imagens digitais e análise e correlação dos dados. As mudanças na paisagem em consequência do histórico da atividade garimpeira são evidentes nos igarapés Cabo Sobral e Paiva, os quais exibem extensas áreas aluvionares e perda significativa da mata ciliar. As potencialidades geoturísticas identificadas (morros, mirantes, cachoeiras e cavernas) foram descritas e denominadas conforme suas características geológicas-geomorfológicas e reunidas em um único produto (carta-imagem) constituindo uma fonte de pesquisa de cunho técnico científico. As trilhas apresentaram alto grau de dificuldade, mas a riqueza de feições geológicas-geomorfológicas permitem um aproveitamento turístico com ênfase na temática educativa. Com relação as estratégias de valorização e utilização da serra do Tepequém, estas corroboram para a preservação e ao mesmo tempo proporciona o desenvolvimento da vila Tepequém, por agregar valor e selecionar o público interessado no viés geoturístico. Portanto, a serra do Tepequém resguarda uma geodiversidade que pode ser utilizada e preservada por meio da atividade geoturística. / The mountain Tepequém, located in the Municipality of Amajari in northern Roraima state, attracted a huge number of people in their late 30s, because of its mineral wealth diamond, which promoted intense mining activity. This activity was concentrated mainly on the edges of drainages, whose marks in the landscape are evidenced by the removal of riparian vegetation, presence of linear erosional features beyond the silting of courses. However, despite the changes of the landscape resulting from mining activity, the mountain Tepequém display a landscaped setting that is currently much in demand for tourism. This scenic beauty is attributed to its physiographic characteristics with emphasis on geomorphologicalgeological features that support and shape the local landscape. The growing tourist activity, practiced in a disorderly mode prints negative impacts on the landscape and low economic return to the community of the Tepequém mountain. In this context, this paper aims to relate the landscape aspects of geological and geomorphological nature of the Tepequém mountain and its potential for geotourism. Aiming this understanding were performed the following methodological procedures: bibliographical survey, mapping and remote sensing on the study area and the geotouristc segment, data acquisition in two stages of fieldwork (Identification of points, mapping trails, interviews with former miners) and in office processing of digital images and analysis and correlation of data. The landscape changes as a result of historic mining activity are evident in streams Cabo Sobral and Paiva, which exhibit extensive alluvial areas and significant loss of riparian vegetation. The potential geoturistc identified (hills, lookouts, waterfalls and caves) have been described and named as its geologicalgeomorphological aspects and combined in a single product (image map) are a key source of research stamp scientific - technical. The tracks showed a high degree of difficulty, but the wealth of geologic-geomorphological, allow a tourist use with emphasis on educational theme. Regarding strategies for appreciation and utilization of Tepequém mountain, they corroborate the preservation while providing the development of the Tepequém village, by adding value and select the interested public in geoturist bias. Therefore, the Tepequém mountain has a geodiversity that can be used and preserved through activity geoturistc.

Το αντικείμενο της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής είναι η οικολογική αξιολόγηση δύο ποτάμιων οικοσυστημάτων του Αχέροντα και του Λούρου, με βάση τις κοινότητες υδρόβιων μακροφύτων, την ποιότητα του νερού και τα υδρογεωμορφολογικά χαρακτηριστικά, καθώς και η ανάπτυξη και η οριστικοποίηση μεθοδολογίας για τη συλλογή, την επεξεργασία, την ανάλυση και την αξιολόγηση των δεδομένων πεδίου προσαρμοσμένης και εφαρμόσιμης στις ελληνικές συνθήκες. Οι επιμέρους στόχοι της διδακτορικής διατριβής διακρίνονται σε 4 επί μέρους κεφάλαια. Το πρώτο κεφάλαιο (Κεφάλαιο Α) αφορά τη διερεύνηση των αβιοτικών παραμέτρων που επηρεάζουν την κατανομή των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων κατά μήκος των δύο λεκανών απορροής. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο (Κεφάλαιο Β) πραγματοποιείται διερεύνηση της δομής της παρόχθιας ζώνης και εκτίμηση των βασικών προτύπων οικολογικής διαβάθμισης και ανθρώπινης παρέμβασης. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο (Κεφάλαιο Γ) πραγματοποιείται αβιοτική τυπολογική διάκριση των θέσεων δειγματοληψίας με σκοπό τη μείωση της χωρικής διακύμανσης, έλεγχο της διαχρονικής και εποχικής διακύμανσης στην κατανομή των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων και καθορισμός των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς σε κάθε τμήμα του ποτάμιου οικοσυστήματος. Τέλος στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο (Κεφάλαιο Δ) δίνεται η μεθοδολογία ανάπτυξης του συστήματος αξιολόγησης των επιπτώσεων των υδρομορφολογικών τροποποιήσεων στη σύνθεση και αφθονία των υδρόβιων και των παρόχθιων ειδών και η δημιουργία του Πολυμετρικού Δείκτη Μακροφύτων. Τα δεδομένα συλλέχθηκαν από συνολικά 32 θέσεις δειγματοληψίας οι οποίες επιλέχθηκαν με κριτήρια 1) την κάλυψη ευρείας διαβάθμισης χρήσεων γης, 2) την επιλογή περισσοτέρων του ενός τμημάτων με παρόμοια γεωμορφολογικά χαρακτηριστικά, 3) τη σταθερή απόσταση μεταξύ των θέσεων δειγματοληψίας, 4) την ομοιογένεια των τμημάτων και τέλος 5) την προσβασιμότητα στα σημεία δειγματοληψίας καθ’ όλη τη διάρκεια της παρακολούθησης. Με βάση τα πιο πάνω κριτήρια επιλέχθηκαν 15 θέσεις δειγματοληψίας στη λεκάνη απορροής του ποταμού Αχέροντα [11 Αχέροντας (A1-8 & A11-13), 1 Κωκυτός (A9), 1 Βουβό Ρέμα (A15), 2 αρδευτικά κανάλια (A10 & A14)] και 17 Θέσεις Δειγματοληψίας στη λεκάνη απορροής του ποταμού Λούρου (S1-17). Η περιοχή αξιολόγησης περιλαμβάνει ένα ομοιογενές τμήμα ποταμού μήκους 100 m, το οποίο χωρίστηκε σε τρία επί μέρους τμήματα: α) το τμήμα της κοίτης το οποίο καλύπτεται με νερό, β) τα κράσπεδα, δηλαδή το ενεργό τμήμα της κοίτης γ) την παρόχθια-δασική ζώνη. Για τη συλλογή και την αξιολόγηση της υδρόβιας και παρόχθιας βλάστησης πραγματοποιήθηκαν εποχικές δειγματοληψίες κατά τη διάρκεια των βλαστητικών περιόδων των ετών 2005-2007 και η αφθονία ειδών καταγράφηκε με την 5-βάθμια κλίμακα DAFOR (5: κυριαρχία και 1: απουσία). Στο πεδίο μετρήθηκαν επίσης οι φυσικοχημικές παράμετροι του νερού (pH, διαλυμένο οξυγόνο, θερμοκρασία, αγωγιμότητα, ταχύτητα νερού και μέσο βάθος νερού) και συλλέχθηκαν δείγματα επιφανειακού νερού για χημικές αναλύσεις θρεπτικών αλάτων αζώτου (ΝΟ3-Ν, ΝΟ2-Ν, ΝΗ4-Ν) και φωσφόρου (PO4-P & TP), Chl-a και αλκαλικότητας. Επίσης καταγράφηκαν στο πεδίο και υπολογίστηκαν στο εργαστήριο υδρογεωμορφολογικά στοιχεία και δεδομένα τοπίου τα οποία αφορούν τόσο την περιοχή αξιολόγησης όσο και όλη τη λεκάνη απορροής. Για τη στατιστική επεξεργασία των δεδομένων χρησιμοποιήθηκαν 1) Ιεραρχική Ανάλυση Συστάδων για βιοτική τυπολογία των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων κατά μήκος των ποταμών και για τον προσδιορισμό της δομής της παρόχθιας βλάστησης, 2) Ανάλυση Ειδών Δεικτών (ISA), για την περιγραφή της ιεραρχικής δομής της κάθε ομάδας και για τη διάκριση των σημαντικών Ειδών-Δεικτών (IndSps), και 3) Ταξιθέτηση όπου χρησιμοποιήθηκαν τόσο έμμεσες όσο και άμεσες αναλύσεις διαβάθμισης. Στις έμμεσες αναλύσεις διαβάθμισης χρησιμοποιήθηκαν α) Ανάλυση Κύριων Συνιστωσών (PCA), για τον προσδιορισμό των Γεωμορφολογικών Ενοτήτων και στον Καθορισμό της κλίμακας πιέσεων και β) Βελτιωμένη Ανάλυση Αντιστοιχιών (DCA), για τη χωρική κατανομή της αφθονίας των ειδών και τον έλεγχος των εποχικών και διαχρονικών διακυμάνσεων των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς. Ως άμεσες αναλύσεις διαβάθμισης χρησιμοποιήθηκαν α) Ανάλυση Πλεονασμού (RDA), για συσχέτιση των φυσικοχημικών χαρακτηριστικών του νερού με τα είδη δείκτες και β) Ανάλυση Κανονικών Αντιστοιχιών (CCA), για συσχέτιση των γεωμορφολογικών παραμέτρων με τα είδη-δείκτες και τον καθορισμό κύριων μεταβλητών υποβάθμισης της παρόχθιας ζώνης. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι κατά μήκος των δύο λεκανών απορροής διακρίνονται έξι Ομάδες Βλάστησης με παρόμοιο περιβαλλοντικό πρότυπο (πηγές-εκβολές). Στις ορεινές περιοχές και των δύο λεκανών απορροής (Αχέροντα και Λούρου) κυριαρχούν τα είδη Pteridium aquilinum, είδη βρυόφυτων και είδη του γένους Carex, C. acuta για τον ποταμό Αχέροντα και C. pendula για τον ποταμό Λούρο. Στο μέσο ρου των ποταμών διακρίθηκαν 4 διαφορετικές ομάδες βλάστησης. Ο διαφορετικός βαθμός ανθρωπογενούς τροποποίησης των εκβολών στις δύο λεκάνες απορροής αντανακλά και στη σύνθεση των φυτοκοινοτήτων όπου στις εκβολές του ποταμού Αχέροντα κυριαρχούν χλωροφύκη και το ανθεκτικό είδος Potamogeton pectinatus ενώ στον ποταμό Λούρο οι εκβολές χαρακτηρίζονται από την απουσία χλωροφυκών και την κυριαρχία του είδους Potamogeton nodosus. Οι σημαντικότεροι φυσικοχημικοί παράγοντες οι οποίοι επηρεάζουν την κατανομή των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων κατά μήκος των λεκανών απορροής της περιοχής μελέτης είναι: το pH, η αγωγιμότητα, η θερμοκρασία νερού, η μέση ταχύτητα νερού, οι συγκεντρώσεις των αλάτων αζώτου (ΝΟ3-Ν, ΝΗ4-Ν, ΝΟ2-Ν) και ορθοφωσφορικών (PO4-P) και Chl-a. Ενώ οι σημαντικότεροι γεωμορφολογικοί παράγοντες είναι: το υψόμετρο, το υπόστρωμα κοίτης, το πλάτος της κοίτης, η σκίαση της κοίτης, ο τύπος ενδιαιτήματος και το βάθος του νερού. Η διερεύνηση της δομής της παρόχθιας ζώνης έδειξε την ύπαρξη 4 διαφορετικών ομάδων παρόχθιας βλάστησης. Οι ορεινές περιοχές και άνω μέσος ρους και των δύο λεκανών απορροής χαρακτηρίζεται από την κυριαρχία των ειδών Platanus orientalis και Quercus coccifera. Οι βασικές τροποποιήσεις που δέχονται οι περιοχές αυτές αφορούν μεταβολές σε τοπικό επίπεδο γεγονός που επιβεβαιώνεται από τις υψηλές τιμές δείκτη QBR. Οι πεδινές περιοχές χαρακτηρίζονται από την κυριαρχία των ειδών Salix alba και Populus alba. Οι σημαντικότερες πιέσεις που δέχεται το πεδινό τμήμα των ποταμών αφορούν τις γεωργικές δραστηριότητες, τη δημιουργία τεχνικών αναχωμάτων, την ενίσχυση της όχθης, τις αμμοχαλικοληψίες, τη διευθέτηση και την ευθυγράμμιση της όχθης. Το είδος Phragmites australis χαρακτηρίζει τις εκβολές των ποταμών, ενώ σημαντική ήταν η αφθονία των ειδών Arundo donax και του εισαγόμενου είδους Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα η αφθονία των ειδών ήταν χαμηλή σε όλες τις Ομάδες Βλάστησης. Εφαρμόστηκαν επίσης οι δείκτες: QBR ο οποίος αποτελεί μέτρο αξιολόγησης της ποιότητας της παρόχθιας ζώνης, HQA όπου αποτελεί δείκτη αξιολόγησης της οικολογικής ποιότητας του ποτάμιου ενδιαιτήματος και HMS ο οποίος είναι δείκτης ανθρωπογενούς τροποποίησης του ενδιαιτήματος. Τα αποτελέσματα από την εφαρμογή των πιο πάνω δεικτών έδειξαν ότι η οικολογική ακεραιότητα παρόχθιας ζώνης αυξάνει τη συνολική οικολογική ποιότητα. Σύμφωνα με τις υδρογεωμορφολογικές μεταβλητές, οι οποίες εξετάστηκαν, οι θέσεις δειγματοληψίας ομαδοποιηθήκαν σε τρεις Γεωμορφολογικές Ενότητες οι οποίες αντιστοιχούν στο Ορεινό, Πεδινό και Εκβολικό Τμήμα των ποταμών. Σε κάθε Γεωμορφολογική Ενότητα πραγματοποιήθηκε ανάλυση πιέσεων και διακρίθηκαν οι σταθμοί αναφοράς οι οποίοι για το ορεινό τμήμα ήταν 7, στο πεδινό 3 ενώ στο εκβολικό τμήμα μόνο 2 σταθμοί χαρακτηρίστηκαν ως περιοχές αναφοράς. Σε κάθε Γεωμορφολογική Ενότητα διερευνήθηκαν οι εποχικές και διαχρονικές μεταβολές στη σύνθεση των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς και προσδιορίστηκε δομή τους. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν, ότι η σύνθεση των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς στο πεδινό τμήμα των ποταμών φαίνεται να παραμένουν σταθερές στις φυσικές διακυμάνσεις. Από την άλλη, οι μικρές διαφορές οι οποίες καταγράφηκαν στο ορεινό και εκβολικό τμήμα των ποταμών οφείλονται κυρίως στην όψιμη Άνοιξη και στις υψηλές θερμοκρασίες που επικρατούν κατά τους καλοκαιρινούς μήνες και εντοπίζονται στο μειωμένο αριθμό των βρυοφύτων και πτεριδοφύτων αντίστοιχα. Τέλος σύμφωνα τα αποτελέσματα η περίοδος διεξαγωγής των δειγματοληψιών προσδιορίζεται ανάμεσα στο χρονικό διάστημα μεταξύ τέλος Απριλίου και τέλος Σεπτεμβρίου αφού σε αυτό το χρονικό διάστημα οποιαδήποτε επίσκεψη στο πεδίο αναμένεται να δώσει την ίδια σύνθεση των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς. Διερευνήθηκαν, στο μεγαλύτερο δυνατό βαθμό, όλες οι πιθανές παράμετροι και πιέσεις, οι οποίες επηρεάζουν τη σύνθεση και την κατανομή υδρόβιων μακροφύτων κατά μήκος των λεκανών απορροής. Οι σημαντικότερες πιέσεις που δέχεται η περιοχή μελέτης επηρεάζουν κυρίως τα υδρομορφολογικά χαρακτηριστικά του οικοσυστήματος. Ως πιο αξιόπιστος και ολιστικός τρόπος αξιολόγησης της οικολογικής κατάστασης της περιοχής μελέτης επιλέχθηκε η Πολυμετρική προσέγγιση. Σαν πίεση επιλέχθηκε η υδρομορφολογική τροποποίηση. Συνολικά, διερευνήθηκαν 86 υποψήφιες μετρικές οι οποίες ανήκουν σε 5 κατηγορίες: 1) Αφθονίας/Ποικιλότητας, 2) Τροφικής κατάστασης, 3) Σύνθεσης φυτικών κοινοτήτων, 4) Ποιότητας Δομής της παρόχθιας ζώνης και 5) Ευαισθησίας/Ανοχής, οι οποίες προέρχονται από τις βιοκοινότητες του υγρού δίαυλου, της ενεργής κοίτης και της όχθης. Ο καθορισμός της κλίμακας πιέσεων πραγματοποιήθηκε με τη χρήση της Ανάλυσης Κύριων Συνιστωσών (PCA) με 36 υδρομορφολογικές μεταβλητές υποβάθμισης σε 2 χωρικά επίπεδα: Μακροκλίμακας και Μικροκλίμακας. Στον τελικό Πολυμετρικό δείκτη συμπεριλήφθηκαν μόνο οι μετρικές οι οποίες ικανοποιούσαν συγκεκριμένα κριτήρια. Τα κριτήρια αυτά αφορούσαν: την εκπλήρωση του κριτηρίου από την εφαρμογή των θηκογραμμάτων με απολήξεις (δηλαδή εξαιρούνται οι μετρικές οι οποίες έχουν στενό εύρος τιμών, πολλές ακραίες τιμές και πολλές απόμακρες παρατηρήσεις), την αποφυγή αλληλεπικαλυπτόμενων πληροφοριών (Spearman ǀrǀ>0,800) και την υψηλή συσχέτιση με τις κλίμακες πιέσεων (Spearman ǀrǀ>0,500). Συνολικά από τις 86 υποψήφιες μετρικές οι 6 θεωρήθηκαν ως κεντρικές μετρικές αφού ικανοποίησαν όλα τα πιο πάνω κριτήρια. Οι κεντρικές μετρικές είναι: 1) Δείκτης IBMR, 2) Δείκτης QBR, 3) Αριθμός Βρυοφυτικών taxa, 4) % Είδη Αναφοράς, 5) % Νιτρόφιλα είδη και 6) % Ελοφυτικά είδη (Phe_herbids). Ο Πολυμετρικός Δείκτης Μακροφύτων (Multimetric Macrophyte Index-MMI) είναι ο αριθμητικός μέσος των 6 κανονικοποιημένων «κεντρικών» μετρικών. Κανονικοποίηση καλείται η προσαρμογή του εύρους τιμών της κάθε μετρικής στο ενδεικτικό όριο από 0 μέχρι 1. Σημαντικό σημείο στην κανονικοποίηση των μετρικών είναι ο καθορισμός του ανώτερου (upper anchor) και κατώτερου ορίου (lower anchor) της κάθε «κεντρικής» μετρικής. Το ανώτερο και το κατώτερο όριο δείχνουν το ενδεικτικό εύρος της κάθε μετρικής όπου το ανώτερο όριο (anchor) αντιστοιχεί στην τιμή της μετρικής κάτω από τις συνθήκες αναφοράς. Στην παρούσα εργασία για το ανώτερο όριο κάθε μετρικής επιλέχθηκε το 75ο εκατοστημόριο (percentile) των μη διαταραγμένων περιοχών και για το κατώτερο όριο το 5ο εκατοστημόριο (percentile) των διαταραγμένων περιοχών. Για την αξιολόγηση της οικολογικής ποιότητας, των θέσεων δειγματοληψίας, με βάση τον Πολυμετρικό Δείκτη Μακροφύτων, απαιτείται ο καθορισμός των ορίων μεταξύ των 5 ποιοτικών κλάσεων όπως απαιτεί η Οδηγία Πλαίσιο για τα Ύδατα 2000/60/ΕΕ. Τα όρια του δείκτη καθορίστηκαν υπολογίζοντας αρχικά το όριο μεταξύ της «Υψηλής»/«Καλής» οικολογικής κατάστασης το οποίο ορίστηκε ως το 25o εκατοστημόριο μη διαταραγμένων περιοχών (0,623). Το υπόλοιπο εύρος τιμών χωρίστηκε σε τέσσερις ίσες κλάσεις. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν, ότι ο ΜΜΙ δίνει πολύ καλή ένδειξη της οικολογικής κατάστασης των μεσαίου μεγέθους πεδινών ποταμών της Δυτικής Ελλάδας (RM-2). Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα το 29,6% των θέσεων δειγματοληψίας (8 θέσεις) ταξινομήθηκαν στην Υψηλή οικολογική κατάσταση, το 4% (14 θέσεις) στην Καλή οικολογική κατάσταση, το 22,3% (6 θέσεις) στην Μέτρια, το 29,6% (8 θέσεις) στην Φτωχή και μόνο το 3,7% (1 θέση) χαρακτηρίστηκε ως Κακής Οικολογικής Ποιότητας. Η παρούσα Διδακτορική Διατριβή, αποτελεί µια πρώτη προσπάθεια στον Ελληνικό χώρο για δημιουργία ενός ολοκληρωμένου συστήματος παρακολούθησης της οικολογικής ποιότητας των ρεόντων υδάτων με χρήση των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων ως βιολογικών ποιοτικών στοιχείων. Η μεθοδολογία αναπτύχθηκε και εφαρμόστηκε πιλοτικά σε δύο λεκάνες απορροής στα μεσαίου μεγέθους πεδινά ποτάμια της Ηπείρου Αχέροντα και Λούρου ακολουθώντας πιστά τις απαιτήσεις και τις κατευθυντήριες γραμμές της Ευρωπαϊκής Οδηγίας Πλαίσιο για τα Ύδατα 2000/60/ΕΕ. Επίσης το σύστημα αξιολόγησης το οποίο προτείνεται αναπτύχθηκε με σκοπό την εφαρμογή του σε όλα τα παρόμοιου τύπου ποτάμια της Ελλάδας αφού τόσο ο κατάλογος με τις υποψήφιες μετρικές όσο και ο ίδιος ο πολυμετρικός δείκτης μπορεί να ελεγχθεί και σε άλλους τύπους ποταμών της Ελλάδας (RM-1, RM-3, RM-4 & RM-5). Τέλος, τα αποτελέσματα που προκύπτουν συμβάλλουν στην ορθολογικότερη διαχείριση και ανάδειξη των ποτάμιων ενδιαιτημάτων και στην εφαρμογή της περιβαλλοντικής πολιτικής του νερού στην Ελλάδα. / The main objective of the present thesis was the ecological assessment of two river basins, Acheron and Louros; based on aquatic plant communities, water quality and hydromorphological characteristics, as well as, the development of a methodology for collecting, analyzing and assessing field data, specific adapted to Greek conditions. The specific objectives of the doctoral thesis include: a) the investigation of abiotic parameters influencing the distribution of aquatic macrophytes along the two river basins (Chapter A); b) the investigation of riparian zone structure and the assessment of “key” environmental gradient and human intervention (Chapter B); c) abiotic typology for reducing the spatial variability, monitoring the temporal and seasonal variation in of aquatic macrophytes distribution, and determination of reference communities in each geomorphological unit of the riverine ecosystem (Chapter C), and d) the development of the Macrophyte Multimetric Index (MMI) which is described step by step in Chapter D. Data were collected from 32 sampling sites, which were chosen according to the following criteria: i) covering a wide gradient of land used i.e. from natural to artificial; ii) selection of more than one site with similar geomorphological characteristics; iii) the constant distance between sampling sites; iv) the homogeneity of the sampling sites, and v) the accessibility to the sampling points throughout the duration of monitoring. Based on the above criteria, 15 sites were selected along Acheron river basin [11, Acheron river (A1-8 & A11-13); 1, Cocytos (A9); 1, Vouvo Rema (A15); 2, irrigation canals (A10 & A14)]. Additionally, 17 sampling sites were selected along Louros river (S1-S15). The survey area was subdivided into 3 zones, a) the wetted part of the channel, b) the marginal-active channel and c) the riparian woodland plot. The survey area length was standardized at 100 m according to the widely accepted methods [e.g. Mean Trophic Rank, (MTR); Riparian Forest Quality, (QBR)]. On the other hand, the width of each plot includes the area between, the end of the active channel and the riparian woodland. The field surveys were conducted during the vegetation periods (April to September) of the years 2005 to 2007. The coverage of each macrophyte species was visually estimated using DAFOR 5-point scale (1: Rare, 2: Occasional, 3: Frequent, 4: Abundant and 5: Dominant). Also, water physicochemical parameters such as temperature, DO, pH, conductivity, were measured in situ using portable equipment (WTW340i/SET). Additionally, surface water samples were collected for determination of nutrients such as nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, total nitrogen, ammonium, phosphorus nutrients (soluble reactive phosphorus and total phosphorus), Chl-a, and alkalinity (HCO-3, CO3=). Nutrient samples were collected and analyzed according to APHA standard analytical method (APHA, 1989). For the statistical processing of the data were used: 1) Hierarchical cluster analysis (Bray-Curtis), for the biotic typology of macrophyte data along river basins and to determine the structure of the riparian vegetation; 2) Indicator Species Analysis, was used to describe the hierarchical structure of each group to distinguish the indicator species (Ind_Sps) for each vegetation group; 3) Ordination, which were used both Indirect and Direct gradient analyses. Indirect gradient analyzes were used: a) Principal Component Analysis (PCA), to identify Geomorphological Units and to determining the pressure gradients; and b) Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA), for researching the spatial distribution of species abundance, and for seasonal and inter-annual variability of the reference communities. For direct gradient analyzes were used: a) Redundancy Analysis (RDA), for correlation between, water physicochemical parameters and Indicator species; and b) Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), for correlation between geomorphological characteristics and indicator species, as well as, to determine the key variables best explain the degradation of the riparian zone. The results showed that along the two river basins, six vegetation groups can be distinguished, with similar environmental gradient pattern (springs-estuaries). The dominant species for the upper part of Acheron and Louros river basins were: Pteridium aquilinum, bryophyte taxa and Carex species (C. acuta and C. pendula respectively). Moreover, four different vegetation groups were characterized the middle part of both river basins. The different degree of anthropogenic alteration of river estuaries (Acheron and Louros), reflects in the composition of the plant communities. The estuaries of Acheron were characterized by the dominant of green algae and the tolerant species Potamogeton pectinatus, while the estuaries of Louros river was characterized by the absence of green algae and the dominance of Potamogeton nodosus. The most important physicochemical variables that significantly affect the distribution of aquatic macrophytes along the river basins were: pH, conductivity, water temperature, and mean water velocity, concentrations of nitrogen nutrients (ΝΟ3-Ν, ΝΗ4-Ν, ΝΟ2-Ν) and orthophosphate (PO4-P), as well as, Chl-a. Whereas, the most important geomorphological factors were: altitude, bed substrate, channel width, channel shading, habitat type, water depth. Hierarchical cluster analysis distinguished five vegetation groups of the riparian zone of the study area. The following groups were indentified and characterized by the dominant riparian species. The upper reaches were characterized by the Vegetation Group Ia: Platanus orientalis and Ib: Quercus coccifera-P. orientalis; the middle reaches by II: Salix alba and Populus alba; and lowland areas until estuaries by III: Phragmites australis. Vegetation Group IV was characterized by the dominant of non native species Eucalyptus camaldulensis and the giant reed Arundo donax. According to the results, species abundance was low in all Vegetation Groups. Also, the applied indices Riparian quality assessment (QBR), Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA) and Habitat Modification Score (HMS) revealed that the ecological integrity of the riparian zone increases the overall ecological quality of the riparian ecosystem. According to the hydromorphological characteristics, the sampling sites were grouped into three Geomorphological Units: Upper –Middle reaches-Estuaries. In each Geomorphological Unit (GU) a pressure gradient analysis was performed, and the reference sites were identified. For GU I the number of reference sites was 7, for GU II 3 reference sites were identified, while, for the estuaries the number of the reference sites were only 2. Also in each GU the seasonal and inter annual changes in reference communities, were investigated, and the structure of the reference community was determined. The results showed that the composition of the reference communities in lowland rivers appears to remain constant in the physical fluctuations. On the other hand, the slight differences which were recorded, in the GU I, during spring and summer sampling, referred to the reduction of bryophytes. This reduction might be cause due to the late spring (May), at the upper part of Louros river. Also, differences were recorded between autumn and spring samplings, in the GU III (estuaries). Those differences referred to the reduction of pteridophytes, maybe due to the high temperatures that prevail during the summer months. Finally, the sampling period could be set between late April and late September, since, during this period, any field visit will give the same composition of the reference communities. We investigated, to the greatest possible degree, all the potential parameters and pressures, which could influence the composition and distribution of aquatic macrophytes along the river basins. The most significant effect, from the current pressures, in the studied area, is the alteration of the hydromorphological characteristics of the ecosystem. The Multimetric approach was chosen, as the most holistic and reliable evaluation method of the ecological status of the study area. A preliminary list of potential plant metrics was compiled from a review of the literature, and in situ observations of plant community patterns. The metrics were grouped into five categories, so that each one representing a different ecological aspect of aquatic and riparian plant communities: 1) Richness/Diversity, 2) Trophic status, 3) Composition, 4) Riparian Integrity, and 5) Sensitivity/Tolerance. A total of 86 metrics were tested, of which 7 belonged to the category of "Abundance/Diversity", 4 to the category of "Trophic” status, 46 metric referred to “Composition” of plant communities, 11 referred to "Riparian Integrity”, and finally, 18 belonged to “Sensitivity/Tolerance” category. The estimation of the pressure gradient was performed using Principal Component Analyses (PCAs), with 36 hydromorphological degradation variables in 2 spatial scales: macroscale and microscale. Candidate metrics, which can be identified as robust and most informative, are scrutinized further, in the process of selecting core metrics. To be selected as a core metric the following aspects have to be considered: 1) core metrics should cover different metric types (see above); 2) metrics should not give redundant information. Inter-correlation tests between candidate metrics were carried out to detect redundant metrics (threshold value Spearman’s r<0.800). In case of redundancy we further investigate: the correlation of each metric with stress gradient (threshold value Spearman’s r<0.05); the correlation of each of the pair of metrics with the other metrics in order to finally omit the one that showed the higher overall mean correlation; and how well they separate stressed from unstressed sampling sites (graphical analysis of box-whisker plots). The final index includes 6 metrics out of 86 candidated metrics. The core metrics are: 1) IBMR, 2) QBR, 3) Number of Bryophyte, 4) % Reference Species, 5) % Nitrophilous taxa and 6) % Helophyte taxa (Phe_herbids). The different numerical scales of each core metric (e.g. abundance class, number of individuals) were normalized to unitless scores between 0 and 1. The upper and lower anchors mark the indicative range of a metric. The upper anchor corresponds to the upper limit of the metric’s value under reference conditions, and it was set as the 75th of the unstressed sites. The lower anchor corresponds to the lower limit of the metric’s value under the worst attainable conditions and it was set as 5th percentile of stressed sites. The multimetric index was calculated as the arithmetic mean of the normalized metrics (Böhmer et al., 2004). The final Multimetric Index provides a score that represents the overall relationship between the combined values of the biological parameters observed for a given site and the expected value under reference conditions. This score is – as for single metrics – expressed as a numerical value between zero and one. This range can be subdivided into any number of categories corresponding to various levels of impairment. To determine the boundaries of Multimetric Index, the 25th percentile of the unstressed sites (0,623) was set as the boundary for the high/good ecological class. We propose quality classes with equal ranges, to provide five ordinal rating categories for assessment of impairment in accordance with the demands of the WFD. The application of Macrophyte Multimetric Index (MMI) in the medium lowland rivers of Greece led to the ecological classification in five quality classes. The results indicated that the 29.6% of the sampling sites (8 sites) were classified in High ecological status, 4% (4 sites) in Good ecological status; the 22.3% (6 sites) in Moderate, 29.6% (8 sites) in the Poor and only 3.7% (1 site) was characterized as Bad ecological quality. The current doctoral thesis was the first attempt in the Greece, for establishing an integrated monitoring system of ecological quality of running water ecosystems, using aquatic macrophytes as biological quality element. The methodology developed, was pilot implemented in two river basins, Acheron and Louros, in Epirus, following the requirements and guidelines of the European Water Framework Directive, 2000/60/EE. Also, the evaluation system was developed to be proposed for implementation at all similar river types of Greece, since both the list of candidate metrics and the Multimetric Index itself, can be tested in other types of Greek rivers (RM-1, RM-3, RM-4 & RM-5). Finally, the results, will contribute to the sustainable management and conservation of riverine ecosystems, as well as, to the implementation of the water environmental policy in Greece.