Chalcopyrite ore forms the significant fraction of copper deposits in the earth crust. However, it is also the most difficult to treat using conventional ferric leaching methods. Smelting and electro-refining are currently the methods used in treating chalcopyrite concentrate obtained from froth flotation. Due to the ever increasing environmental requirements on smelters by the Environmental Protection Agency, new smelters are scarce in the United States. The scarcity of smelters has led to the urgent need to find a novel leaching method for the abundant chalcopyrite deposits in the USA and the rest of the world. This chapter(one) of the dissertation, therefore, investigated the leaching of chalcopyrite ore at pH 2 using a newly discovered oxidant (peroxodisulfate). Our results show that chalcopyrite leaching using peroxodisulfate follows a surface reaction shrinking core model. The activation energy of chalcopyrite leaching using peroxodisulfate ion was calculated as 41.1 kJ mol⁻¹. We also report that the leaching of chalcopyrite ore is affected by particle size and that stirring hurts leaching of chalcopyrite. Additionally, we found that peroxodisulfate can produce from sulfuric ions electrochemically. Hydrogen peroxide, permanganate, peroxodisulfate and ferric ions are all strong oxidants that have been researched in production pregnant leach solution (PLS) from chalcopyrite ore leaching. Because, solvent extraction is the next step in the recovery of copper from pregnant leach solutions (PLS). The questions, therefore, arises as to the fate of the organic extractant used in solvent extraction coming in contact with strong oxidant residual in the PLS. In chapter two of the dissertation, we studied the effect of strong oxidant residual in PLS on the degradation of organic extractants during solvent extraction of copper. Exposed organic extractants were analyzed using interfacial tension(IFT), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and CG LS. The results obtained from IFT and FTIR analysis, show no effect on the organic extractants exposed to sunlight and PLS containing the residual strong oxidant. Finally in chapter 3, the dissertation exams alternative water source for the flotation of chalcopyrite. Mineral flotation is a water-intensive process in mining. In order to sustain mining operations such flotation, which rely heavily on water, chapter 3 of the dissertation looks at using alternative water sources (in this case reclaimed wastewater) in the flotation of chalcopyrite ores; this effort is to limit the mining industries dependence on fresh ground water particularly in the Southwest of United States where water is a scarce commodity. The research studied the effect of reclaimed waste water on chalcopyrite flotation via contact angle and surface energy measurements. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and flotation tests were used to supplement the findings from contact angle and surface studies. We conclude here that the contact angle of a pure chalcopyrite surface was determined to be 75.6 degrees. We also found that pure chalcopyrite mineral surface is slightly polar with surface energies γCuFeS2^(LW) = 41.4 mJ/m² (apolar), γCuFeS2^(AB) = 2.9 mJ/m² (polar). The high value of the surface energy indicates pure chalcopyrite surface is slightly hydrophobic.

For most electromagnetic (EM) geophysical systems, the contamination of primary fields on secondary fields ultimately limits the capability of the controlled-source EM methods. Null coupling techniques were proposed to solve this problem. However, the small orientation errors in the null coupling systems greatly restrict the applications of these systems. Another problem encountered by most EM systems is the surface interference and geologic noise, which sometimes make the geophysical survey impossible to carry out. In order to solve these problems, the alternating target antenna coupling (ATAC) method was introduced, which greatly removed the influence of the primary field and reduced the surface interference. But this system has limitations on the maximum transmitter moment that can be used. The differential target antenna coupling (DTAC) method was proposed to allow much larger transmitter moments and at the same time maintain the advantages of the ATAC method. In this dissertation, first, the theoretical DTAC calculations were derived mathematically using Born and Wolf's complex magnetic vector. 1D layered and 2D blocked earth models were used to demonstrate that the DTAC method has no responses for 1D and 2D structures. Analytical studies of the plate model influenced by conductive and resistive backgrounds were presented to explain the physical phenomenology behind the DTAC method, which is the magnetic fields of the subsurface targets are required to be frequency dependent. Then, the advantages of the DTAC method, e.g., high-resolution, reducing the geologic noise and insensitive to surface interference, were analyzed using surface and subsurface numerical examples in the EMGIMA software. Next, the theoretical advantages, such as high resolution and insensitive to surface interference, were verified by designing and developing a low-power (moment of 50 Am²) vertical-array DTAC system and testing it on controlled targets and scaled target coils. At last, a high-power (moment of about 6800 Am²) vertical-array DTAC system was designed, developed and tested on controlled buried targets and surface interference to illustrate that the DTAC system was insensitive to surface interference even with a high-power transmitter and having higher resolution by using the large-moment transmitter. From the theoretical and practical analysis and tests, several characteristics of the DTAC method were found: (1) The DTAC method can null out the effect of 1D layered and 2D structures, because magnetic fields are orientation independent which lead to no difference among the null vector directions. This characteristic allows for the measurements of smaller subsurface targets; (2) The DTAC method is insensitive to the orientation errors. It is a robust EM null coupling method. Even large orientation errors do not affect the measured target responses, when a reference frequency and one or more data frequencies are used; (3) The vertical-array DTAC method is effective in reducing the geologic noise and insensitive to the surface interference, e.g., fences, vehicles, power line and buildings; (4) The DTAC method is a high-resolution EM sounding method. It can distinguish the depth and orientation of subsurface targets; (5) The vertical-array DTAC method can be adapted to a variety of rapidly moving survey applications. The transmitter moment can be scaled for effective study of near-surface targets (civil engineering, water resource, and environmental restoration) as well as deep targets (mining and other natural-resource exploration).

The subject of this dissertation is artisanal mining in Namibia and is based on two hypotheses. The first is that if the artisanal mining process is well understood in Namibia, then effective solutions to improving the artisanal mining cycle of poverty can be developed. The second hypothesis states that if effective solutions to improving the artisanal mining cycle of poverty can be implemented, then the miners' income can be increased.Research for the dissertation is broken down into four areas. The first area includes the development of an understanding of the artisanal mining process. A general model that shows the relationship of four basic elements of artisanal mining (investment, production, sales and consumption) as well as several components that make up the elements was created. The model also describes the various environments (physical, social/cultural, and political) that artisanal operate.The Artisanal Mining Process Model was then used to evaluate artisanal mining in Namibia. Artisanal mining in Namibia is somewhat unique because of the material mined (collector minerals and semi-precious gemstones), but the outcome is consistent with other locations with most artisanal miners only making a subsistence living. One of the key outcomes of this part of the study is the identification of low sales revenue exacerbated by the miners having to sell in a local market with few buyers.Because the local market and buyers are a critical component of the cycle of poverty, the third area of research is an understanding of the local market and the supply chain that ultimately leads to a much larger international market. The international markets lead to the fourth area of research, which is the Tucson Mineral Show, the largest of its kind in the world.The conclusions of the paper discuss the applicability of the Artisanal Mining Process Model in helping to understand issues facing the artisanal miners as well as methods that could be used to help the artisanal miners participate in the international market for collector minerals.

Large opencast coal mines require a complex infrastructure to fulfill production demand and quality values. The distinct specifications required by each customer are achieved by blending adjustments. There is limited control in variability. With only partial information available, operation controllers blend coal by empirical approximation, trying to keep quality between acceptable ranges in order to avoid penalizations, shipment rejections or even contract suspensions. When a decision support system (DSS) centralized in a control room is used for blending control, crew operators visualize enhanced displays of the different sources of information, obtaining a holistic perspective of operations. Using a simulator to reproduce the blending sequence, crew operators can experiment with diverse what-if scenarios and develop blending strategies for an entire working shift, in which they also incorporate their own expertise and the knowledge obtained after interpreting the simulation results. The research focuses on the empirical analysis of the effectiveness of the DSS by studying the performance of crew users in different operating scenarios produced with a simulator. The development of a methodology for measuring this effectiveness and its impact in the quantification of controlling the variability of blending represents a significant contribution in the area of quality improvement for coal production. The effectiveness of the DSS for controlling the blending and load out processes has been numerically measured after experimenting diverse simulated scenarios, proving that the difference between estimated and actual quality delivered is narrower when using a DSS, in comparison with the BTU variability obtained from historical data. The strategies that produced better results in terms of control of coal quality variability, maximization of infrastructure utilization, time spent in making decisions and the minimization of risk for penalizations and rejections, were scored proportionally to the benefits obtained.

The research presented in this dissertation consists of four topics. The first of these topics is an experimental study of rock fracturing due to rapid thermal cooling, and the other three topics are related to mine-to-optimization. This includes the development and testing of a site-specific model for blast fragmentation, the development of a technique for utilizing digital image processing and ground-based LIDAR for rock mass characterization, and an experimental study of the effects of ore blending on mineral recovery. All four topics are related through the subject of rock fracturing and rock fragmentation. The results from this research are important and can be used to improve engineering design associated with rock excavation and rock fragmentation. First of all, a successful set of laboratory experiments and 3D numerical modeling was conducted, looking at the effects of rapid thermal cooling on rock mechanical properties. The results gave the unexpected finding that depending on the rock type and the thermal conditions, rapid cooling can result in either overall crack growth or crack closing. Secondly, a site-specific model for predicting blast fragmentation was developed and tested at an open-pit copper mine in Arizona. The results provide a practical technique for developing a calibrated blasting model using digital images and digital image processing software to estimate in-situ block size, and a calibrated Schmidt hammer to estimate intact tensile strength. Thirdly, a new technique was developed to conduct cell mapping in open-pit mines using the new technologies of digital image processing and ground-based LIDAR. The results show that the use of these new technologies provide an increased accuracy and the ability for more sophisticated slope stability analyses with no increase in field time only a moderate increase in data processing time. Finally, a successful set of laboratory experiments was conducted looking at the effects of ore blending and grinding times on mineral recovery from a set of six ore from a copper mine in Arizona. The results gave the unexpected finding that for a fixed grinding time, the mineral recovery of the blended ores exceeded the average of the individual recoveries of the same ores unblended.

The characterization of rock properties is a vital task in the challenge for hard rock mining operation. A simplified and straightforward characterization of rock properties provides information about the safety of ground structure (e.g. slope, tunnel, etc.), and the strategy to improve productivity in terms of rock breakage process. The penetration-rate of drilling has been proposed to quantify the comminution characteristics of rock by virtue of real-time logging of drilling performance otherwise the data is obtained from a time- and cost-consuming laboratory test; this is called measurement while drilling. In the mining industry, this technique can be a useful tool that has allowed for the meticulous and routine data collection of geological information from blasthole drilling operations. In this study, the mechanical performance of drill and its interaction with the rock properties is investigated in laboratory scale. The rock properties include tensile strength, hardness, and grindability, which is considered as the influential parameters of the required energy consumption for the comminution processes. For sandstone samples, the penetration-rate data shows a good correlation with tensile strength, hardness, and Bond work index; this implies that penetration-rate data can be a good indicator to estimate comminution characteristics. Additionally we carried out the same test with limestone samples. Second, field study is conducted to investigate the interaction between current blast design and rock fragmentation. Fabricating the blast design and fragmentation through the blast operation might enable to construct proper strategy to reduce the energy cost of downstream processes including crushing and grinding by using the rock characteristics measured from the blasthole drilling. The concept of this process is a part of Mine-to-Mill optimization. The thesis proposed the blueprint of Mine-to-Mill optimization, providing a guideline for further in-situ research.

Roof falls and accumulation of dangerous gasses are the most common hazards in any underground coal mine. Different mechanisms can jeopardize the stability of the roof in underground excavations and successful roof control can only be obtained if the failure mechanism is identified and understood properly. The presence of discontinuities, the inherent variability of the rock mass and discontinuity properties, and the uncertainties associated with directions and magnitudes of the in-situ stress makes the rock engineering problems challenging. The numerical modeling can assist the ground control engineers in designing and evaluating the stability of the underground excavations. If extensive geological and geotechnical data are available, then detailed predictions of deformation, stress and stability can be accomplished by performing numerical modeling. If not, still the numerical modeling can be used to perform parametric studies to gain insight into the possible ranges of responses of a system due to likely ranges of various parameters. The parametric studies can help to identify the key parameters and their impact on stability of underground excavations. The priorities of the material testing and site investigation can be set based on the selected key parameters from parametric studies. An underground coal mine in western Pennsylvania is selected as a case study mine to investigate the underlying causes of roof falls at this mine. The immediate roof at the case study mine consists of laminated silty shale, shale, or sandstone that changes from area to area, and the floor is shale or soft fireclay. This study was mainly focused in the stability analysis of the roofs with the laminated silty shale rock type, where the majority of roof falls had taken place in the roof with this type of roof material. Extensive laboratory tests were performed on the core samples obtained from the case study mine to estimate the intact rock and discontinuity properties of the materials that occur in large extent at the selected interest area of the case study mine. In this research, the three-dimensional distinct element method was used to investigate the stability of the roof in an underground room-and-pillar coal mine. The implemented technique was able to accurately capture the failure of the major discontinuities and rock masses which consist of intact rock and minor discontinuities. In order to accurately replicate the post failure behavior of the rock layers in the immediate roof area, the strain-softening material constitutive law was applied to this region. Extensive numerical parametric studies were conducted to investigate the effect of different parameters such as the variation of immediate roof rock mass strength properties, variation of discontinuity mechanical properties, orientations and magnitudes of the horizontal in-situ stresses, and the size of pillars and excavations on stability of the excavations. The distribution of post failure cohesion along with other measures such as accumulated plastic shear strain, distribution of Z-displacements at the roofline, failure state (joint slip and tensile failure) and displacement (normal and shear displacements) of discontinuities were used to accurately assess the roof stability in this case study. The research conducted in this dissertation showed that the bedding planes play an important role on the behavior of roof in underground excavations. Therefore, an appropriate numerical modeling technique which incorporates the effect of discontinuities should be employed to simulate the realistic behavior of the discontinuous rock masses such as the layered materials in roof strata of the underground coal mines. The three-dimensional distinct element method used in this research showed the clear superiority of this technique over the continuum based methods.

Mine to Mill optimization is considered as a key concept for metal mining recently. Targeting operational best practices on a highly varying environment is challenging. Impact of underperformed basic operations such as drilling and blasting will sustain this inefficiency in mineral processing. Data provided for each of these operations from software and hardware utilized on field reached a level where advanced data analytics becomes applicable. In order to represent the operations as close to reality, an integrated layer of data where transactional and process based data lives is crucial. Data warehousing and data mining are alternative tools that rely on a robust data structure. Data mining utilizes the integrated data layer for pattern discovery within the data itself. Relations that are unknown for now can be investigated by data mining algorithms that rely on vast amount of data. Empirical equations that are based on a limited set of data could be improved by using data mining algorithms. The main objective of optimizing the mine to mill value chain also challenges the concept of providing real-time feedback. This research proposes a data-driven mine-to-mill framework for modern mines.

Most large contemporary mines already have considerable amounts of data, much of which goes largely unused. The key challenge in big data is increasing data utilization. Much of the data in the mine (not plant) come from a variety of systems, each with different databases and reporting environments. Standard technology deployments create a "silo-ification" of data leading to poor system usage. Through modern server monitoring, data utilization can quantifiably be measured. A host of other quantifiable, often automated approaches, to measuring data use and value can also be incorporated as a means of monitoring value generation. A data valuation tool is presented to measure the data assets at an operation. The Data Value Index (DVI) quantifies business intelligence best practices and user interaction considering managerial flexibility and data utilization rates. The DVI is built considering many case studies of data warehousing at various mining companies, some of which will be presented.

Geopolymerization has been considered as a new technology to replace the ordinary Portland cement in construction industry. It provides an option to manage the industry waste and byproducts like fly ash, mine tailings. At the same time, the CO₂ emissions can be reduced about 80% compared to that of ordinary Portland cement. The present research includes three main parts. First part is applying mine tailings as construction materials using geopolymerization method. The study is focused on efficiently activating mine tailings, reducing alkali consumption, decreasing curing time and improving compressive strength. We investigate the activation temperature effects, the impacts of additives and effects of forming pressures. The results show that a 40 MPa unconfined compressive strength (UCS) can be achieved with the geopolymerization samples after mine tailings are activated by sodium hydroxide at 170°C for 1 hour with the addition of calcium hydroxide and alkali dissolved aluminium oxide, further compressed with a 10 MPa forming pressure and finally cured at 90°C for 3 days. To elucidate the mechanism for the contribution of additives to geopolymerization, microscopic and spectroscopic techniques including scanning electron microscopy/ energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy are used to investigate the micro/nanostructure and the elemental and phase composition of geopolymerization specimens. The stress-strain behavior was also characterized. The results shows that the mechanical behavior is similar with that of concrete and the dynamic modulus is 22 GPa, which is comparable with that of concrete. The Young's modulus of geopolymer product was also calculated and the value is in the range of 2.9 to 9.3 GPa. The findings of the present work provide a novel method for the geopolymerization of mine tailings as construction materials. Second section is applying fly ash as a high strength water-resistant construction material. Through the present investigation, a procedure has been studied. The experiment results indicate that the concentration of NaOH, water content, and curing condition can significantly affect the mechanical property of geopolymer matrix. At the same time, the chemical composition, especially the Si/Al ratio and calcium content, is also an important factor during geopolymerization. XRD results show that the amorphous feature can be observed for both high and low calcium fly ash. It is the key of the success of geopolymerizaton due to its high reactivity. XRD, FTIR and SEM tests were performed to study how experiment conditions and the properties of fly ash affect geopolymerization. The obtained compressive strength of the geopolymerization product can reach above 100 MPa. The stress-strain behavior was also characterized. The results shows that the dynamic modulus is 36.5 GPa. The product obtained from the present work shows very high water resistance without losing any compressive strength even after a one month soaking time. Third part is applying the mixture of class C fly ash and mine tailings as construction materials. Through the present investigation, a protocol has been set up. The experiment results of the present work also help set up the working conditions such as activation temperature and time, the concentration of NaOH, the addition of Ca(OH)₂, forming pressure, mine tailing to class C fly ash weight ratio, curing temperature and curing time. To elucidate the mechanism for the contribution of additives to geopolymerization, microscopic and spectroscopic techniques such as SEM/EDX, X-ray diffraction and FTIR spectroscopy were used to investigate the micro/nanostructure and the elemental and phase composition of geopolymerization composite. The obtained compressive strength of the geopolymerization product can reach above 60 MPa. The stress-strain behavior of the geopolymer matrix of the mixture of mine tailing and fly ash were also characterized and the results show that the mechanical behavior is similar to that of concrete with a 24 GPa dynamic modulus. The Young's modulus of geopolymer product was also calculated and the value is in the range of 4.0 to 13.5 GPa. The findings of the present work provide a novel method for the geopolymerization of the mixture of mine tailings and class C fly ash as construction materials, such as bricks for construction and road pavement.