BACKGROUND: While advances in medicine have led to increased survival rates, cancer is responsible for millions of deaths each year. Melanoma itself accounts for tens of thousands of these deaths, and is capable of progressing rapidly. If left untreated, patient prognosis is bad and survival is unlikely. With distant metastasis, survival rates past five years are under ten percent. The link between angiogenesis and tumor growth has been well established, and therefore anti-angiogenic factors should show a decrease or slowing of cancer growth. Glutaredoxin-1 (Glrx), an enzyme residing in the cytosol, is responsible for removing glutathione (GSH) from GSH-protein adducts. This plays a role in reversible cellular signaling. It has been shown that increased levels of global and endothelial cell (EC) specific Glrx leads to decreased levels of revascularization following hind limb ischemia in mice. Few studies however have compared the overexpression of Glrx to melanoma tumor growth. OBJECTIVE: To examine how Glrx overexpression in endothelial cells (EC) influences B16F0 murine melanoma cell growth in C57BL6 mice. METHODS: Eight Glrx overexpressing double transgenic (DTG) and seventeen control mice (Ve-cadherin or WT) between the ages of 3 and 4 months old each received subcutaneous injection with B16F0 mouse melanoma cells. After 2 weeks, the mice were euthanized to remove tumors. Weight and size of tumor were recorded. Tumor, lung, and tail samples were taken. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) of tumor samples were performed. Genotypes were confirmed via western blot of lung and PCR of tail DNA. Excised tumor tissue was in part fixed to examine for angiogenesis and macrophage markers. VEGF ELISA was performed on tumor samples. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) testing for Isolectin B4 and CD68 was performed on frozen sections. RESULTS: Slightly higher average tumor weight was found in DTG mice (m=1229.45 mg ± 202.89 mg, n=8) when compared to the control (m=827.32 mg ±172.62 mg, n=17). Lower gene expression of VCAM, VEGFA, IL-6, IL-1B, Kdr, and HIF1 was found in the DTG mice when compared to the control. The expression of CD68 was significantly lower (P<0.05). VEGF ELISA showed higher concentrations of VEGF per total protein in the DTG mice versus the control mice. IHC showed DTG had higher endothelial cell signaling by Isolectin B4, and higher macrophage signaling by CD68. CONCLUSIONS: The growth of B16F0 murine melanoma is not suppressed by the overexpression of Glrx in EC of C57BL6 mice. / 2019-07-11T00:00:00Z

Fusarium virguliforme is a soil-borne pathogen that causes sudden death syndrome (SDS) disease in soybean. SDS is one of the most significant diseases of soybean in the United States. Fungal infection results in root and crown rot as well as SDS typical foliar symptoms including chlorosis, necrosis and complete defoliation. The use of soybean cultivars tolerant to SDS is still the most effective way to overcome the disease. On the other hand, the fungal isolates are known to have varied levels of aggressiveness on soybean indicated by the field and greenhouse experiments. Understanding the pathogen and its defense mechanism is the first step in exploring the pathogen-plant interaction. Therefore, the primary aim of this research was to elucidate the mechanism behind F. virguliforme response to soybean defense mechanisms. We further attempted to identify chromosome length polymorphism among F. virguliforme isolates and characterize the possible relationship to their level of aggressiveness. In order to fulfill the first objective, a series of differentially expressed genes were identified in F. virguliforme in the presence of soybean phytoalexin, glyceollin. The Fvgrx2 gene, a Saccharomyces cerevisiae grx2homologue, was selected for further analysis. This study demonstrates for the first time the identification and characterization of dithiol glutaredoxin gene in F. virguliforme . The role of FvGRX2 in the fungal defense to phytoalexin, glyceollin and induced oxidative burst was also investigated by generating anFvΔgrx2 knockout. In order to establish a link between the fungal karyotype and the level of fungal aggressiveness, the chromosome length polymorphism (CLP) was assessed for twenty-two F. virguliforme isolates exhibiting different levels of aggressiveness on soybean. The findings are instrumental in identifying novel pathogenicity such as the ones involved in phytotoxin production, fungicide resistance and aggressiveness.

Abstract Glutaredoxins (Grx) are small thiol disulphide oxidoreductases with a conserved active site sequence -CXXC/S- and a glutathione (GSH) binding site. They catalyze the reduction of protein disulphides, preferring protein-GSH mixed disulphides as substrates. The accumulation of protein-GSH mixed disulphides has been observed during oxidative stress, where they may serve both a regulatory and an antioxidant function by protecting the enzymes from irreversible oxidation. Once oxidative stress has been removed the GSH-protein mixed disulphides are reduced by GSH or, more efficiently, by Grx. The present study showed for the first time that Grx1 and Grx2 can be detected in healthy human lung. Highly specific expression of Grx1 was observed in alveolar macrophages, but it could also be detected from sputum supernatant. Grx1 levels in alveolar macrophages were lower in selected inflammatory diseases than in control lung samples. Grx1 was also mainly negative in the fibrotic areas in usual interstitial pneumonia, an aggressive fibrotic lung disease. Overall, the present study suggests that Grx1 is a potential redox modulatory protein regulating the intracellular as well as extracellular homeostasis of glutathionylated proteins and GSH not only in healthy lung, but also in inflammatory and fibrotic lung diseases. In order to study the mechanism of action of glutaredoxins in vitro, a new real-time fluorescence-based method for measuring the deglutathionylation activity of glutaredoxins using a glutathionylated peptide as a substrate was developed. The first reaction intermediate in the deglutathionylation reaction was shown to be exclusively Grx-GSH mixed disulphide and this specificity was solely dependent on the unusual γ-linkage present in glutathione. The study also demonstrated the role of conserved residues in the proximity of proposed GSH binding site to the GSH binding specificity of E. coli Grx1. Opening the binding groove and removing charged residues enabled Grx to form more readily mixed disulfides with other molecules besides GSH. Different members of the PDI family showed considerably lower activity levels compared to glutaredoxins and, in contrast to the glutaredoxin-GSH mixed disulphide, the only intermediate in the PDI catalysed reaction was PDI-peptide mixed disulphide.

No description available.

ABSTRACT Equilibrium unfolding, single- and double-jump kinetic studies were conducted to determine the unfolding and refolding pathway of glutaredoxin 2. Structural changes for wild-type glutaredoxin 2 were monitored by far-ultraviolet circular dichroism and intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence for equilibrium unfolding and intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence for single- and double-jump kinetics studies. Glutaredoxin 2 possesses two tryptophan residues in domain 2. In order to monitor changes in domain 1, cysteine 9 at the active site cysteines, situated in domain 1, was labelled with an extrinsic fluorophore, AEDANS, and a mutant was created (Y58W glutaredoxin 2). The AEDANS labelled protein displayed decreased alpha-helical secondary structure and conformational stability. A high degree of cooperativity and similar conformational stability was observed during the two-state transition of the urea-induced equilibrium unfolding of both the wild-type and Y58W glutaredoxin 2 proteins therefore Y58W glutaredoxin 2 could be used to assess structural changes in the local environment of domain 1 during unfolding and refolding. Two phases of unfolding, the fast and slow phase, occurred for both the wild-type and Y58W proteins. The slow phase involves structural rearrangements that expose small amounts of surface area while the fast phase represents gross structural unfolding exposing large amounts of surface area. The isomerization of the Val48-Pro49 peptide bond to the trans conformation occurs during the slow phase and this isomerization is coupled to conformational unfolding of the protein. The structural separation of these phases could be represented by two structural units (unit x and unit y), these units do not represent domain 1 and 2. The units could also result in parallel refolding pathways with the folding of the x unit involving the fast and slow refolding phases and the folding of the y unit of structure is represented by the medium phase of refolding. The fast and slow phases are further separated as the fast phase represents the gross structural folding of glutaredoxin 2 for species with the Val48-Pro49 peptide bond in the native cis conformation. The development of the slow phase after extended unfolding delay periods during double-jump refolding studies, as well as the acceleration of the rate of the phase by the peptidyl prolyl isomerase hFKBP-12 proved that the phase involves a proline peptide bond iv isomerization. This phase represents a slow isomerization coupled with conformational folding similar to the slow unfolding phase. Complex unfolding and refolding kinetics indicated the involvement of kinetic intermediates during (un)folding.

Thesis advisor: Eranthie Weerapana / The 1,3,5-triazine is a privileged scaffold in that it is planar and has three-fold symmetry which allows for controlled modification around the ring structure with various substituents. In this thesis, we report on two modular inhibitor libraries that center around a 1,3,5-triazine core scaffolding system, which have been shown to target protein disulfide isomerase A1 (PDIA1), glutaredoxin-3 (GLRX3), and 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase (PFKP). Protein disulfide isomerase A1 (PDIA1) is a thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase localized in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and is an important folding catalyst and chaperone for proteins in the secretory pathway. PDIA1 contains two active-site domains (a and a’), each containing a Cys-Gly-His-Cys (CGHC) active-site motif. Here, we synthesize a targeted library o second-generation triazine-based inhibitors to optimize the potency and selectivity of our lead compound, RB-11-ca. Characterization of this targeted library afforded an optimized PDIA1 inhibitor, KSC-34, which covalently modifies C53 in the a site of PDIA1 and demonstrates time-dependent inhibition of the reductase activity of PDIA1 in vitro with a kinact/KI = 9.66 x 103 M-1s-1. Interestingly, KSC-34 treatment demonstrated that a-site inhibition led to decreased secretion of amyloidogenic antibody light chain, thus illustrating that site-selective inhibitors like KSC-34 provide useful tools for delineating the pathological role and therapeutic potential of PDIA1. In 2014, our lab first reported on RB7, a dichlorotriazine-based electrophilic small molecule which displayed extremely high reactivity and selectivity toward lysine residues in the proteome. Herein, we further on this study by investigating the unique reactivity of RB7 through the synthesis of a second-generation small molecule electrophile library and investigating proteome-wide reactivity in vitro and in situ. This library afforded KSC-46, an RB-7 analogue with p-chlorothiophenol tuning element, which provided optimal proteome reactivity to use as a scaffold for the generation of a targeted library. To take advantage of the tuned reactivity of KSC-46, a second-generation targeted library was generated to target react residues in the proteome. This library yielded two molecules, KSC-56 and KSC-65, which were identified to target glutaredoxin-3 (GLRX3) and 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase (PFKP), respectively. GLRX3 is a cytosolic, monothiol iron-sulfur cluster chaperon protein which relies on two nucleophilic cysteine residues to bind and transfer iron clusters. PFKP is known to catalyze the first irreversible step in glycolysis and regulates the flux of glucose metabolism in the cell, which makes PFKP an attract therapeutic target. KSC-56 was further characterized to bind to Cys261 in the C-terminal glutaredoxin domain of GLRX3. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2018. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

Plants respond to and defend themselves against a wide range of disease-causing microbes. In order to do so, massive reprogramming of cellular protein expression patterns, which underpin various defense pathways, must occur. A family of basic leucine zipper transcription factors, called TGA factors, has been implicated in mediating this response. The TGA factors themselves are subject to complex regulation; of note, TGA1 and TGA4 are regulated via a reduction of conserved cysteines after treatment with the phenolic signaling molecular salicylic acid, which accumulates following pathogen challenge. Previous studies indicate that TGA factors physically interact in the yeast two-hybrid system with the plant-specific CC-type of glutaredoxin (Grx)-like proteins. Grx are a family of oxidoreductases that are important for maintaining the cellular redox status and often are required to modulate protein activity. The goal of this study was to ascertain the role of these Grx-like proteins in regulating TGA1 redox state. To this end, the expression patterns of several Grx genes were analyzed.<p> Quantitative-reverse-transcriptase PCR (q-RT-PCR) experiments indicated that TGA1 and TGA4 may be involved in down-regulating levels Grx-like gene transcripts after exposure to pathogens or salicylic acid (SA). Furthermore, qRT-PCR experiments also indicated that expression of some Grx-like genes is induced by SA, jasmonic acid (JA), and <i>Pseudomonas syringae</i>. Overexpression of the Grx-like protein, CXXC9, in <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> revealed that it is a regulatory factor in the cross-talk between vi theSA/JA pathways as it is able to suppress expression of PDF1.2, a marker for the JA defense pathway, as determined by qRT-PCR. The â-hydroxy ethyl disulfide (HED) assay was utilized to determine if the CC-type of Grx-like proteins have oxidoreductase activity <i>in vitro</i>. These studies revealed that that the Grx-like proteins do not exhibit oxidoreductase activity in this assay.

Plants respond to and defend themselves against a wide range of disease-causing microbes. In order to do so, massive reprogramming of cellular protein expression patterns, which underpin various defense pathways, must occur. A family of basic leucine zipper transcription factors, called TGA factors, has been implicated in mediating this response. The TGA factors themselves are subject to complex regulation; of note, TGA1 and TGA4 are regulated via a reduction of conserved cysteines after treatment with the phenolic signaling molecular salicylic acid, which accumulates following pathogen challenge. Previous studies indicate that TGA factors physically interact in the yeast two-hybrid system with the plant-specific CC-type of glutaredoxin (Grx)-like proteins. Grx are a family of oxidoreductases that are important for maintaining the cellular redox status and often are required to modulate protein activity. The goal of this study was to ascertain the role of these Grx-like proteins in regulating TGA1 redox state. To this end, the expression patterns of several Grx genes were analyzed.<p> Quantitative-reverse-transcriptase PCR (q-RT-PCR) experiments indicated that TGA1 and TGA4 may be involved in down-regulating levels Grx-like gene transcripts after exposure to pathogens or salicylic acid (SA). Furthermore, qRT-PCR experiments also indicated that expression of some Grx-like genes is induced by SA, jasmonic acid (JA), and <i>Pseudomonas syringae</i>. Overexpression of the Grx-like protein, CXXC9, in <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> revealed that it is a regulatory factor in the cross-talk between vi theSA/JA pathways as it is able to suppress expression of PDF1.2, a marker for the JA defense pathway, as determined by qRT-PCR. The â-hydroxy ethyl disulfide (HED) assay was utilized to determine if the CC-type of Grx-like proteins have oxidoreductase activity <i>in vitro</i>. These studies revealed that that the Grx-like proteins do not exhibit oxidoreductase activity in this assay.

Macrophage death is likely to contribute to the transformation of fatty streaks into advanced atherosclerotic lesions. Previous work in the laboratory showed that OxLDL promotes cell death in human macrophages by a mechanism involving intracellular peroxide formation. Here we show that glutathione depletion induced by OxLDL occurs independent of peroxyl radical formation. Our data suggest that the depletion of glutathione is the fundamental defect that renders macrophages susceptible to OxLDL-induced cell injury, but alone is not sufficient to kill macrophages. We indicate that increased protein-Sglutathionylation is involved in OxLDL-induced macrophage death. A potentiation of OxLDL toxicity was observed in macrophages transfected with siRNA directed against either glutathione reductase or glutaredoxin. Our data suggests that OxLDL-induced cell injury in human macrophage is mediated by the depletion of GSH, a decreased in the GSH/GSSG ratio and peroxyl radical formation. All three signals are required for OxLDL-induced macrophage death. Our results also show that the glutathione reductase/glutaredoxin system protects macrophages from OxLDL-induced cell death.

Orientador: Luis Eduardo Soares Netto / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T00:45:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Discola_karenFulan_D.pdf: 5792872 bytes, checksum: ee9797756e3c67c12d00e2c76271feee (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: Glutarredoxinas (Grxs) são pequenas oxidorredutases que possuem pelo menos um resíduo de cisteína conservado em seus sítios ativos e têm atividade dissulfeto redutase dependente de tiol. Embora Grxs estejam envolvidas em diversos processos celulares, como enovelamento protéico e proteção contra espécies reativas de oxigênio, poucos substratos biológicos dessas enzimas são conhecidos. Na levedura Saccharomyces cerevisiae, oito Grxs foram identificadas (ScGrx1-8); destas ScGrx1-2 são ditiólicas e possuem o motivo Cys-Pro-Tyr-Cys em seus sítios ativos. Ambas Grxs ditiólicas são citosólicas, embora ScGrx2 também seja encontrada na mitocôndria. Neste trabalho, mostramos que ScGrx2 possui atividade específica como oxidorredutase quinze vezes maior do que ScGrx1, embora estas enzimas compartilhem 64% de identidade e 85% de similaridade de seqüência. A análise cinética bi-substrato mostrou que ScGrx2 possui tanto um menor KM para glutationa quanto um maior turnover que ScGrx1. Com o intuito de compreender melhor estas diferenças bioquímicas, determinamos os valores de pKa da cisteína N-terminal (Cys27) dos sítios ativos destas duas proteínas e demonstramos que estes parâmetros não justificam a diferença de atividade observada. Tentando identificar características estruturais relacionadas a essa diferença de atividade, determinamos as estruturas cristalográficas de ScGrx2 na forma oxidada e do mutante ScGrx2-C30S ligado à glutationa a 2.05 e 1.91 Å de resolução, respectivamente, e comparamos estas estruturas com as estruturas de ScGrx1 descritas por Håkansson & Winther, 2007. As análises estruturais nos permitiram formular a hipótese de que substituições dos resíduos Ser23 e Gln52 de ScGrx1 por Ala23 e Glu52 em ScGrx2 poderiam modificar a capacidade da cisteína C-terminal do sítio ativo de atacar o dissulfeto misto formado entre a cisteína Nterminal e glutationa. Nossa hipótese foi testada através de ensaios enzimáticos com proteínas mutantes. Acreditamos que as diferenças funcionais e estruturais observadas entre ScGrx1 e ScGrx2 possam refletir em variações na especificidade por substratos e indicam que estas enzimas possuem funções biológicas não redundantes em S. cerevisiae. / Abstract: Glutaredoxins (Grxs) are small thiol-dependent oxidoreductases with disulfide reductase activity endowed by at least one cysteine at their active sites. Although Grxs are implicated in many cellular processes, including protein folding and protection against reactive oxygen species, few of their targets are known. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, eight Grxs isoforms were identified (ScGrx1-8). Two of them (ScGrx1-2) are dithiolic, possessing a conserved Cys-Pro-Tyr-Cys motif. Both dithiol glutaredoxins are cytosolic, however ScGrx2 is also located at the mitochondria. In spite of the fact that ScGrx1 and ScGrx2 share 85% of amino acid sequence similarity, we have shown that ScGrx2 is fifteen times more active as oxidoreductase than ScGrx1. Further characterization of the enzymatic activities through two-substrate kinetics analysis revealed that ScGrx2 possesses both a lower KM for glutathione and a higher turnover than ScGrx1. To better comprehend these biochemical differences, the pKa of the N-terminal active site cysteines (Cys27) of these two proteins were determined. Since the pKa values of ScGrx1 and ScGrx2 Cys27 residues are very similar, these parameters cannot account for the difference observed between their specific activities. In an attempt to better understand the mechanisms and differences between yeast dithiol Grxs activities, we elucidated the crystallographic structures of ScGrx2 in the oxidized state and of the ScGrx2-C30S mutant with a glutathionyl mixed disulfide at resolutions of 2.05 and 1.91 Å, respectively. Comparisons among these structures and those of ScGrx1 (Håkansson & Winther, 2007) provided insights into the remarkable functional divergence between these enzymes. We hypothesize that the substitutions of Ser23 and Gln52 in ScGrx1 by Ala23 and Glu52 in ScGrx2 can modify the capability of the active site C-terminal cysteine to attack the mixed disulfide between the N-terminal active site cysteine and the glutathione molecule. Mutagenesis studies supported this hypothesis. The observed structural and functional differences between ScGrx1 and ScGrx2 may reflect variations in substrate specificity and non-redundant biological functions. / Doutorado / Bioquimica / Doutor em Biologia Funcional e Molecular