The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of three training methods in empathy in order to establish which of the three was most effective in promoting higher levels of empathy in the helper. Forty-two volunteer student-counselors from the University of Ottawa were randomly assigned to four groups: (1) a control group receiving 9 hours of pre-experimental audiotape empathy training (n = 11); (2) an experimental group 1 receiving 9 hours of pre-experimental training plus an additional 9 hours of identical audiotape training ( n = 10); (3) an experimental group 2 receiving the 9 hours of pre-experimental training plus 9 more hours of roleplaying (n = 11); and finally (4) an experimental group 3 receiving the 9 hours of pre-experimental training plus Microcounseling training (n = 10). The experimental design was a pretest-posttest control group design. Empathy was measured by scoring responses to the Index of Communication and rating excerpts from the recorded standard interviews. Independent judges rated the responses to the Index of Communication and the excerpts from the standard interviews, using the Carkhuff Empathic Understanding in Interpersonal Processes: A Scale for Measurement (Carkhuff empathy scale). A multivariate analysis of variance was performed to test for significant differences between the pretest and posttest means of the three groups. Significant differences were found between posttest means on one criterion only, the standard interview. The results indicated that (1) both the roleplaying and the Microcounseling were more effective than the audio only and the no-treatment group in promoting higher levels of empathy in the trainees, and that (2) Microcounseling was as effective as Carkhuff's systematic training approach in training for empathy, but it was not superior to Carkhuff's approach. Several reasons are suggested for these results.

This study investigated the effects of the two kinds of marital therapy programs on couples volunteering to improve their relationships. Two groups of couples participated in the Minnesota Couples Communication Program. One of these groups was posttested immediately after treatment while the other was posttested six weeks following treatment. A third group of couples played the Family Contract Game which was adapted for couples in the present study. Finally, there was a waiting list Control group who received the same pretest and posttest procedures as the previous groups. All groups self-monitored throughout the 5 weeks during which treatment occurred as well as for 6 weeks following the termination of the treatment phase. A series of self-report, self-monitoring, and behavioural measures of all spouses were taken at the beginning and end of the treatment program. Couples in the Communications Program tested immediately following treatment decreased in the number of positive responses they gave while discussing problem issues, reported being less happy with their relationship, but spent more time together. Communications couples tested 6 weeks after treatment gave fewer negative responses when discussing a problem issue, received fewer pleasing and displeasing behaviours from their spouse, and spent more time together. Contracting couples gave more positive responses when discussing a problem issue, increased their reported happiness with their relationship and decreased in the number of displeasing behaviours received. Control couples decreased in their reported happiness with their relationship during the self-monitoring period, and at the time of posttesting reported spending more time together; they also requested fewer changes of their spouse in problem areas, and requested less change in the number of activities they wanted to do with their spouse. These results suggest that, at best, Communications Skills training has minimal behavioural change consequences for marital relationships, and at most, such training can result in iatrogenic effects. The Contracting procedure was the most effective in producing behavioural and subjective changes in marital relationships and would seem to hold the greatest promise for understanding and treating certain disturbed marital relations.

The problem of this study was to determine the effect of varying degrees of intensity of audiovisual tape self-confrontation upon the self-concept of high anxiety twelfth-grade students in a group counseling situation under client-centered conditions. The general hypothesis was that, if audiovisual self-confrontation is used in client-centered group counseling, then significantly higher scores will result on a measure of self-concept than if such confrontation is not used. The study was based upon the premise that audiovisual self-confrontation represents a unique adjunct to the techniques of client-centered therapy in providing to the client an objective view of his own behavior as well as the reactions of others to his behavior. By providing this view, the confrontation is supportive of the self-perception purpose of therapeutic techniques. It tests the client-centered theory assertions that (1) one of the objectives of therapy is to help the client differentiate and discriminate the objects of his feelings and perceptions, including his self, thereby bringing about a more positive self-concept, and (2) if incongruence exists, a sudden or obvious demonstration of the incongruence may result in a deteriorated self-concept. In order to test the effect of audiovisual self-confrontation, high anxiety twelfth-grade students were assigned randomly to two groups of six students in each of five high schools. In each group, students were designated randomly, two for focused self-confrontation (with discussion), two for unfocused self-confrontation (without discussion), and two for no self-confrontation as control. Following a twenty-five-minute client-centered group counseling session (with self-confrontation for designated students) each week over a six-week period, students were tested on the self-concept variable. The results did not support the hypothesis that audiovisual self-confrontation would enhance the self-concept. There was no statistically significant difference between the self-concept scores of the focused, unfocused, and control groups of students. Therefore, both Hypothesis 1 and Hypothesis 2 were rejected. The results of the study did indicate that, for the students involved under the given conditions, audio-visual self-confrontation was not effective as an adjunct in the implementation of client-centered therapy.

Carl Rogers postulated that certain necessary and sufficient conditions for personality change are congruence, unconditional positive regard and empathy. He predicted that personality change would occur in clients who perceive the counselling conditions in a therapeutic relationship. Julian Rotter, in his theory, contends that an individual's belief in locus of control is an important variable in the study of personality. Rogers indicates that the individual with a healthy personality would tend to be internal in his locus of control, while the individual without a healthy personality tends to be external in his locus of control. He asserts that clients must perceive the congruence, unconditional positive regard and empathy of the counsellor prior to positive personality change taking place. It was therefore hypothesized that there would be a difference in the locus of control change scores of the group of clients who perceive their counsellors as possessing counselling conditions and the group of clients who perceive their counsellors as not possessing the counselling conditions. Subjects for the study were self referred clients who sought personal adjustment counselling from school counsellors who volunteered to participate in the study. The Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (Form OS-M-64) was used to determine the client's perception of the counselling conditions. The difference between the Social Reaction Inventory pre-test and post-test scores was used to indicate changes in locus of control over the twelve week experimental period. The hypothesis was not supported. Various explanations for the results are suggested. Recommendations for further study include replication of the study in a clinical setting and a study over a longer counselling period with greater numbers of counsellors and clients.

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This study employed a variation of grounded theory method to investigate how seasoned counsellors in a midsized Canadian city experienced their counsellor professional identity. Six master's-level counsellors were interviewed using a semi-structured interview protocol to develop an understanding of how they define themselves as professionals, as well as how they view the counselling profession overall. Twenty-five themes emerged, which were further classified into five categories: (a) key influences on counsellor professional identity, which included seven themes; (b) counsellors' professional image, which included seven themes; (c) counsellors' roles and practices, which included six themes; (d) counsellor education and training, which included three themes; and (e) critical events of counsellor professional identity, which included two themes. Encouraging counsellors and counsellor trainees to reflect upon their professional identity and how it develops could foster a stronger professional identity among counsellors and ultimately promote a stronger and more unified image of the profession. Keywords: counselling, professional identity, counsellor education