During the past two decades women have entered the workforce in record numbers; they currently comprise nearly 48% of the workforce. Although their presence has been felt in occupations that have been traditionally held by men, their numbers remain concentrated in occupations that have been traditionally held by females. Using a grounded theory approach, this qualitative research looked at women's career decision-making to see to what extent marriage and family issues played a role in their career decisions. Although previous research has focused on such factors as personal characteristics and parent-child relationships as they relate to women's choices of traditional or nontraditional occupations, few studies have explored the relationship of women's career choices and potential marriage and family. Through a comparison of women who are currently working in traditional occupations with women who are working in nontraditional fields, this study explored women's perceptions of balancing future marriage and family roles; the role that sequencing plays in future role balancing; and the impact of women's concerns about future role balancing on their choices of traditional or nontraditional careers. Ten college graduates who chose traditional occupations and ten graduates who chose nontraditional occupations were interviewed. The tape recorded interviews were transcribed, marked, labeled, and grouped in categories. Passages within each category were then reviewed to synthesize the material. The final part of the process involved a review of the interview material in order to identify new learning regarding the impact of potential marriage and family on women's career decisions. The themes identified through the interviews are consistent with the summary of major barriers to and facilitators of women's career choices that are identified by Betz (1994). Those participants who chose to major in fields that are nontraditional for women indicated that they chose those fields based on their skills and interests and believed that they could "fit" family into their careers. All of the participants discussed the need for flexibility of schedules to accommodate roles associated with marriage and family.

This study uses in-depth interviewing along with participant observation and document analysis to develop an understanding of academic advising at one land grant university (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1988a; Seidman, 1991; Spradley, 1980). Through in-depth phenomenological interviews, this study asks how academic advisors understand the work of advising, the changes proposed and occurring in this setting, and how they manage the deep-seated dilemmas and perplexing choices inherent in the advising role. In addition, it inquires how these choices and decisions connect to issues raised by national reform initiatives of professionalization and standardization for the field. A group of twenty-eight faculty, professional and classified staff academic advisors from twenty different academic departments, counseling centers, and programs within the advising support system were interviewed. This included nineteen women and nine men who provided academic advising as a significant part of their work role. A sequence of three separate, ninety-minute audio-taped interviews were done with each participant (Seidman, 1991). When transcribed, verbatim material was analyzed for patterns and commonalities that were shared among advisors as well as uniqueness of practice (Patton, 1980). In interviews, as academic advisors reconstructed their experience and understanding of their work and work life, they repeatedly cited a common set of organizational issues. This interview material was developed into seven thematic chapters that describe and examine the context and historical development of academic advising; the changing student profile; the missing spirit of connectedness and inadequate preparation; divided roles and fragmented delivery system; self-constructed advising definitions and orientations; individually developed advising techniques and use of advising tools; and the issue of status.

The fields of multicultural counseling and education have given increased emphasis to the relationship between minority students and academic performance in our classrooms. The literature on minority students' achievement has shown that public education in this country experiences criticism and controversy and fails to meet the educational expectations and demands of minority students, particularly those of Hispanic heritage. In addition, Hispanic students are affected by their high dropout rates and academic underachievement. In search for solutions and strategies, social scientists, educators and multicultural school counselors have identified minority students in our classroom as a vital part for teachers development. This study explored Puerto Rican first generation students' perceptions of their guidance counseling services and their opportunity to achieve a post-secondary education. The study explored how those perceptions enhance the educational and learning process. By using a phenomenological survey, data was gathered from 60 Puerto Rican first generation students. A triangulation strategy was used, as well as factor analysis and cluster methods for the data analysis, in search for patterns, categories and themes among participants' responses. There were four major findings in this study. It was found that these students want to be more aware of their guidance counseling services. It was found that the participants' perceptions in regards to their parents assistance with their school matters were important to them. It was also found that their perceptions in regards to their teachers' advising is a vital factor for their academic performance. Finally it was also found that these students believed that an academic after school program can benefit them with their academics and personal matters and furthermore it serves as an important liaison between students $\leftrightarrow$ teachers $\leftrightarrow$ counselors $\leftrightarrow$ principals and parents.

School violence has encouraged the introduction of peer mediation programs in spite of the absence of reliable research and program evaluation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the nature of peer mediation programs in 44 Massachusetts secondary public schools, describing the objectives, evidence, and conditions that fostered or hindered program success. The research questions that guided this study asked 132 respondents to indicate the objectives of peer mediation programs, evidence of success, and conditions within the schools that helped or hindered success. Of 42 objectives, only peaceful resolution of conflict was reported by a majority of the schools. Four others--learning alternative ways of dealing with violence; improving the climate in school and classroom; reducing the number of fights before becoming serious; and teaching students to talk out problems were reported by 41% of the respondents. From the seven most common examples of evidence demonstrating success, a decrease in violence and suspensions was reported by the largest percentage of respondents (38%). Major hindrances to mediation included adult intervention in mediation, lack of administrative funding, and scheduling conflicts. No single condition that either helped or hindered program success emerged in the study. The most common supportive condition was administrative and faculty support, and the most common hindrance was scheduling conflicts. Other hindrances were a lack of a full-time coordinator, and lack of administrative and faculty support. Respondents provided few examples of evidence or conditions to support their claims of success or lack of success. Results indicate that peer mediation was successful in most of the 44 schools in the study, and that every school program was unique. Still, improvements, such as effective program evaluation; greater funding; support for staff training from the state and universities; and closer scrutiny of developments in the field, are necessary. The rise in school violence throughout the nation is forcing educators to respond with programs, such as peer mediation. The blueprint for successful peer mediation programs needs to be designed by each school. Planned properly, facilitated effectively and evaluated appropriately, peer mediation can contribute to the realization of safe learning environments for students.

At Bridge Street School in Northampton, Massachusetts, all Grade 4 students in three classes were trained as peer mediators. The purpose of this study was to investigate and evaluate how elementary school students perceive the usefulness of their peer mediation training and whether they were able to incorporate mediation skills into their lives. Trainees practiced respectful communication, studied conflict, discussed options for nonviolent resolution, and participated in role plays to learn peer mediation techniques. Data gathered from written student pre, mid and post assessment documents was analyzed to determine student perceptions and responses about program effectiveness, specifically, the value, usefulness, and impact of their training. Feedback from teachers, principal, and parents provided supplemental program assessment data and ideas for curriculum enhancement. This study did not attempt to measure a reduction of violence or violent behavior. By the conclusion of the training, research findings and statistical comparisons document that Grade 4 students: (1) Recognized that skills learned and practiced during their peer mediation training were helpful and useful; (2) Reported immediate implementation of mediation skills for problem solving during school and non-school time; (3) Listed peers and family as primary resources for assistance with conflict; (4) Identified themselves as problem solvers on an open-ended question; and (5) Indicated they would choose peer mediation for conflict resolution, if needed, appropriate, or available. The aggregate research statistics of the training Class of 1997 were summarized, analyzed and compared to aggregate data from the Bridge Street School Training Classes of 1995, 1996, and 1998 that had the same trainer, similar training curriculum, and identical questions on similarly administered self-assessments. Multi-year comparisons expanded this research into a 4-year local study. The research findings strongly support that grade 4 students are capable of understanding and implementing skills learned during peer mediation training. As volunteer school peer mediators or not, everyone can provide valuable community service modeling, promoting and assisting with peaceful conflict resolution. Teaching all students about respectful dispute management and providing them opportunities for integrating learning into classroom and personal life experiences can be a valuable component of elementary school violence prevention education.

The study describes the perceptions of a specific group of students toward the advantages and disadvantages of joining gangs. The research identifies the likely impact of a gang prevention program, the Gang Education and Resistance Curriculum (Tsagaris, 1996), on changing student perceptions about joining gangs. Lastly, the study examines what educators and law enforcement officials view are essential characteristics of a successful program to prevent students from joining gangs. Data were collected using a student survey and guided interviews with educators, correctional officers and teachers. One hundred seven students were administered a Gang Awareness Survey prior to and upon completion of the gang prevention program. Guided interviews explored observations and experiences the adults had working with each other and with the students who participated in the program. Findings indicate that students have varying perceptions about the advantages and disadvantages of joining gangs. The impact of a gang prevention program differs for each student. And, there is commitment by adults to prevent students from joining gangs. Specific findings suggest that: (1) Student perceptions of the advantages of joining gangs prior to participation in the program demonstrated lack of knowledge about gang member attributes. (2) Upon completion of the program fewer students perceived many advantages to joining gangs. (3) Overall data analysis indicates that it is likely that the Gang Awareness and Resistance curriculum has an impact on changing participating student perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages of joining gangs. (4) Educators and correctional officers believe that collaborative models best serve the needs of the students, the schools and the community. The research culminates in recommendations for developing gang prevention programs. These recommendations can be used by school districts in collaboration with law enforcement officials and other community members to guide the development of programs that meet unique needs to prevent gangs in their schools and communities.

Research suggests that during consultation several factors may influence the successful implementation of interventions. This study specifically addresses the problem of low treatment outcome expectancies and the possible mediation of this variable. The primary question is whether it is possible to achieve greater expectancy for successful outcomes using practical methods. In this study, data were collected in two stages. The first stage incorporated an analogue condition designed to exam the possible influence of numerous factors related to the consultation process. The second set of data were collected in an applied setting while providing case consultation for students identified by their teachers as having significant problems with academic functioning. In this condition, a single variable (priming) was manipulated and then followed by a written measure of outcome expectancies. A comparison of group means between treatment and nontreatment groups indicated a significance difference (t = 2.08, one-tailed test p = .025). Priming the consultee with documentation of intervention effectiveness significantly increased positive outcome expectancies with a large magnitude of effect (g = 1.90; t = 4.23, p < .01). Although an attempt was made to test the relationship between actual outcomes and high expectancy versus low expectancy conditions, follow-up data were too sparse for thorough analysis. Unfortunately, less than a third of the teachers, targeted for follow-up, implemented the intervention. Due to the large amount of research data already supporting the Pygmalion effect, this study was not designed to establish a causal relationship between teacher expectancies and student performance. Instead, this investigation provides empirical support for the use of priming as a mediator of expectancies within the context of the school consultation model for classroom interventions.

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a persistent pattern of inattention and or hyperactivity-impulsivity, is a growing concern in many school districts because it is estimated to affect as much as 3 percent to 5 percent of the school age population (APA, 1994). The problem is that regardless of the currently accepted methods of treatment such as parent training, family therapy, classroom management, social skills training, and medication therapy, the symptoms of ADHD persist into adolescence at an alarming rate. Children with disorders of behavior exhibit excessive theta brainwave activity compared to normal children (Lubar, 1991). The present study administered a changing criterion treatment protocol, which integrated components of neurofeedback, meditation, and control theory, in order to decrease theta brainwave activity. The purpose of the present study was to explore whether a school system could identify specific profiles of attention with a computerized continuous performance test (CPT), administer an attention enhancement program, and remedy those deficits identified by the CPT. The subjects were 5 male children between the ages of 8 and 10 years who were diagnosed ADHD by their family physicians. Subjects were selected according to their performance on the Test of Variables of Attention (T.O.V.A.), a computerized continuous performance test. Subjects received between 18 and 26 attention enhancement sessions over a four month period during their regular school day. Although the T.O.V.A. showed moderate ability to identify specific profiles of attention, as supported by moderate Pearson correlations between T.O.V.A. impulsivity and ADHDT impulsivity (r = −.58, P < .05) and T.O.V.A. inattention and ADHDT inattention (r = −.63, P < .05), T.O.V.A. performance did not consistently improve after attention training. Although the attention enhancement program was completed within the school, there were many unforseen difficulties and impediments to its successful administration. Secondary dependent measures included the Stroop Color and Word Test, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Test (ADHDT), EEG measures, Parenting Stress Index, and Behavior Rating Profile. The results of these measures were equivocal.

Due to a worldwide increase in migration, refugees, and migrant laborers, interpersonal conflicts today are more frequent and complex. The young field of interpersonal conflict resolution is therefore being looked to for answers. Practitioners all over the globe are limited by the conflict resolution literature which is mostly written from a western perspective. There is a need to explore interpersonal conflict resolution practices of different cultural groups and societies with different histories of oppression. In a 15-month qualitative research study, I explored interpersonal conflict resolution practices of a Tamil labor community on a tea plantation in Sri Lanka called Sooryan. The first part of the study traces the establishment of plantations in Sri Lanka by the British. It differentiates between plantation and non-plantation societies. The works of Jayaraman (1975), Beckford (1983), Wesumperuma (1986), Daniel (1993), and Hollup (1994) help trace the cultural, economic, and political factors which cause conflicts on plantations. This part also explores interpersonal conflict resolution practices in different societies, and presents four third-party conflict resolution models practiced in non-plantation societies. The second part describes the labor community at Sooryan plantation. It explains the living and working conditions of the laborers, and the role of Talaivars (leaders) and trade union representatives. It examines discrimination faced by the laborers from the outside non-plantation community. It highlights the machine bureaucracy and the management style at Sooryan. The third part explores four categories of interpersonal conflicts, which manifest within-family, between laborers, between laborers and their supervisors, and between the labor plantation community and the outside non-plantation community. It describes processes which the labor community uses in resolving their conflicts. Challenges are posed to practitioners and educators by contrasting the conflict resolution practices of the Sooryan labor community with the mainstream mediation model of the United States. Finally, the study examines the unique problems of the labor community and how its social, economic, and political isolation makes its conflicts permanent. With this understanding, further research and effective educational programs can be developed for plantation societies, migrant laborers, and refugees. To this end, the daily water problems of the Sooryan labor community in Sri Lanka serve as a timely reminder.

Imaginative involvement has long been seen a central characteristic of hypnosis with children. In attempting to predict which children would benefit from hypnosis as part of a clinical protocol, past researchers have focused on the relationship between imaginative involvement and hypnotizability. In particular, the constructs of absorption, vividness of mental imagery, and fantasy proneness have been investigated in correlational studies. However, Kirsch (1997) and others have recently drawn attention to the fact that hypnotizability scales, as they have been interpreted, confound hypnotic responsiveness with an individual's normal, baseline suggestibility. The purpose of this study was to assess various correlates of imaginative suggestibility (absorption, vividness, fantasy proneness, and dissociative behavior) while also controlling for nonhypnotic suggestibility. As predicted, vividness and fantasy were significantly associated with both nonhypnotic and hypnotic suggestibility. Contrary to what was predicted, absorption did not correlate significantly with nonhypnotic suggestibility but did evidence a strong correlation with hypnotic suggestibility. Also contrary to what had been predicted, neither birth order nor dissociation showed significant correlations with imaginative suggestibility (with and without induction). Overall, nonhypnotic suggestibility accounted for most of the variance in hypnotizability. The correlation between nonhypnotic suggestibility and hypnotic suggestibility was exceptionally high, and both vividness and absorption were found to predict unique variance in hypnotizability when nonhypnotic suggestibility was controlled. Fantasy did not uniquely predict hypnotizability. Finally, nonhypnotic suggestibility, absorption, and vividness were combined in a model that accounted for 76% of the variance in hypnotizability. Results of this study support the view of hypnotic responsiveness as reflecting a continuum of suggestibility. The present findings serve to further weaken the theory that hypnosis produces an altered state of consciousness.