Les relations hôte-parasite sont complexes et soumettent les deux protagonistes à un ensemble de compromis aussi bien plastiques qu’évolutifs. D'un côté, bien que l’immunité soit indispensable pour la lutte contre les parasites, elle peut aussi causer de nombreux dégâts à l’hôte lors de la réponse et mener à des maladies inflammatoires. De l’autre côté, les parasites, bien que dotés de mécanismes d'évasion, vont être affectés par l'environnement inflammatoire de l'hôte. Cela pose la question des coûts et bénéfices que l'interaction entre ces deux protagonistes va avoir sur chacun d'eux lors de l'apparition de troubles inflammatoires chez l'hôte. Grâce à différentes approches expérimentales et bibliographiques nous avons pu montrer que l’immunopathologie est un trait qui perdure vraisemblablement grâce aux bénéfices de la réponse immunitaire dans la lutte contre les parasites. Par ailleurs, j’ai pu mettre en évidence qu’une inflammation altérait positivement les traits d’histoire de vie du parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus aussi bien de façon plastique que lors de processus de sélection. Cependant, le parasite investit davantage dans l’immunomodulation et le camouflage lorsqu'il est confronté à cet environnement, laissant planer la question du coût de cette inflammation à long terme et sur plusieurs générations. / Host-parasite interactions are characterized by trade-offs that involve both plastic and microevolutionary responses. On one hand, while immunity is essential to fight parasites, it can also cause damage to the host, leading to autoimmunity and inflammatory diseases. On the other hand, parasites have to cope with the immune environnement provided by the host. This raises the question of the costs and benefits of the inflammatory response for the two partners of the interaction. With different experimental and literature-based approaches, I showed that immunopathology is a trait that likely persists because of the immediate benefits of the immune response in terms of protection against parasites. Furthermore, I was able to show that inflammation positively altered the life history traits of the gastrointestinal nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus both plastically or after experimental evolution. However, the parasite invested more in immunomodulation and camouflage when facing an inflammatory environment, leaving open the question of the costs associated with an inflammatory environment over the entire lifespan of the parasite and/or across generations.

This thesis examines the parasite dynamics and the mechanisms affecting parasite load and transmission focalising on the role played by host and habitat heterogeneities. This study is based on the gastrointestinal nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus and the small mammal yellow necked mouse and uses data gathered from experimental field manipulations of parasites intensities and data gathered from trapping monitoring. Initially the parasite community of yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis) was explored in North-Eastern Italian Alps with the aim to describe the major patterns and identify the factors affecting parasite community structure. Despite the observed spatial variability it has been found that differences within the host population such age and secondly sex and breeding conditions, were the major factors acting on parasite occurrence and intensity. Habitat differences had a less apparent effect on parasite community structure. The consequences of H. polygyrus infection on other parasite species infections have been analysed, in specific the infestation of the tick Ixodes ricinus in populations of A. flavicollis. H. polygyrus load and tick infestation were monitored as well as were carried out field manipulations of H. polygyrus intensity and were monitored changes in tick infestation. It has been found that H. polygyrus load was negatively related to I. ricinus infestations. Host factors mediated the H. polygyrus-I. ricinus interaction such that young and non-breeding mice exhibited higher I. ricinus to H. polygyrus intensity respect breeding adults. The role of host sex on parasite abundance was then investigated carrying out a field experiment where the H. polygyrus intensity were manipulated in relation to mice gender. In specific, H. polygyrus was removed alternately from either sexes and the parasite load was analysed in the untreated sex. It was found that males mice were responsible to drive parasite transmission in the host population and this was observed in absence of sex-bias in parasite infection, suggesting that this pattern was not a mere consequence of quantitative differences in parasite loads between sexes. To disentangle the possible mechanism causing this sex bias in parasite transmission mathematical simulations based on parameters obtained for the field experiment were used. Two non mutually exclusive hypotheses causing sex bias in parasite transmission were tested: a- males immune response is less efficient and this causes the development of more successful parasite infective stages or b-males behaviours allow them to be more efficient is spreading in more exposed areas parasite infective stages. Multi-host models were developed and simulations were compared with field results. While it was not disentangled the most dominant mechanism causing sex bias in parasite transmission this study underlined the importance of host sexes in affecting parasite dynamics and host-parasite interaction. In conclusion this thesis highlighted the importance of considering host and environmental differences when investigating host parasite interactions. This finding could be extremely important when planning measured of disease control or to avoid disease outbreak. Controlling target group of individuals host could avoid economical losses and a more effective measure of intervention.