O Laboratório do Acelerador Linear do Instituto de Física da Universidade de São Paulo está desenvolvendo um estudo sobre a eficiência e a função resposta de detetores de HPGe a fótons de alta energia. Neste trabalho foi estudada a função resposta de fótons provenientes da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O. Na reação podem ser observados os fótons característicos de 6,1 MeV, 6,9 MeV e 7,1 MeV. Fótons com esta energia possuem um grande potencial para várias aplicações importantes, como \"Proton Induced Gamma-ray Emission\" (PIGE), gamagrafia e procedimentos de calibração. No caso de procedimentos de calibração essa reação possui um diferencial: o fluxo de fótons observado é bem maior do que em outras reações estudadas, tais como 27Al (p, gama)28Si e 23Na(p, gama)24Mg. Os experimentos foram realizados no Laboratório de Análise de Materiais por Feixes Iônicos (LAMFI) do IFUSP, utilizando um acelerador eletrostático tipo \"Pelletron-tandem\" de 1,7 MV de tensão máxima no terminal. O detetor estudado foi um HPGe do tipo coaxial \"reverse-electrode closed-end\" com 72,5 mm de diâmetro e 60,5 mm de comprimento e 60% da eficiência de um detetor de NaI para fótons de 1,332 MeV. O detetor foi posicionado a 0 grau em relação à linha de feixe. A corrente de prótons na irradiação era da ordem de 50 nA e a energia dos prótons variou entre 1,36 MeV e 1,42 MeV. O alvo utilizado consistia em 250 micro g/cm^2 de CaF2 evaporado em um suporte de Ta. Os picos dos três fótons da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O apresentaram deformações devido à emissão em vôo dos fótons. Essas deformações apresentam variações em função da energia dos prótons. Com o objetivo de descrever as formas dos picos foi desenvolvido um programa que utiliza a técnica de Monte Carlo para simulá-las. Os dados sobre \"yields\" relativos dos fótons e seção de choque da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O encontrados na literatura são imprecisos e contraditórios. Então, como parte dos resultados deste trabalho, foram obtidos os \"yields\" relativos dos fótons da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O para energias de prótons entre 1,360 MeV e 1,420 MeV. A função resposta do detetor para as diferentes formas dos picos foram obtidas através de simulações com o programa MCNP5. Para estas simulações foi feita uma descrição detalhada da geometria interna do detetor, obtida por meio de radiografias do mesmo. As intensidades relativas dos fótons da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O em função da energia dos prótons puderam ser obtidas através de um ajuste por mínimos quadrados das funções respostas simuladas aos espectros experimentais de altura de pulso. / In the 19F(p, alpha gamma)16O reaction, characteristic gamma-rays with energies: 6.1 MeV; 6.9 MeV and 7.1 keV can be observed. These photons can be used in many important applications such as Proton Induced Gamma-ray Emission (PIGE), gamma radiography and calibration purposes. It has another advantage in calibration procedures, which is the observed photon flux is greater than other reactions studied, 27Al(p, gamma)28Si and 23Na(p, gamma)24Mg. In our laboratory, we are studying the efficiency and response function of HPGe detectors for high energy photons, and for this it is necessary a source with a level scheme with a few gamma-ray transitions and known relative yields. The 19F(p, alpha gamma)16O reaction satisfies the first condition but in the literature we found relative yields for thick targets or reaction cross section for thin targets. However, we use targets of intermediate thickness, therefore in this work we measure the relative gamma-ray yields for protons with energies between 1.36 MeV and 1.42 MeV. The experiments were performed at the 1.7 MV Pelletron tandem accelerator of the Laboratório de Análise de Materiais por Feixes Iônicos (LAMFI) located at Instituto de Física da Universidade de São Paulo, using a reverse-electrode closed-end coaxial HPGe detector with 72.5 mm in diameter and 60.5 mm in length, at 0 degree. The proton irradiation current was 50 nA, and the target consisted of 250 micro g/cm^2 CaF2 evaporated on a 0.1 mm Ta backing. In this reaction the 20Ne resonant state fissions in flight, and the resulting 16O excited states have different half-lives; all observed peaks are deformed due to either Doppler broadening from 16O random velocity direction or Doppler shift from nuclei that leave the target toward the vacuum chamber. Moreover, the peak deformations vary with the proton energy. These deformations were modeled by a Monte Carlo simulation that follows the oxygen nuclei in its trajectory until photon emission, considering the changes in spatial distribution of the exact interaction point in the target with incident proton energy due to the large resonance width and proton energy loss, and 16O energy loss and multiple scattering until decay, in the different target layers. Using the detector response functions calculated by MCNP5 simulations, the relative intensities of the three gamma rays were obtained by a least square fit of the response functions, taking into account the Doppler broadening and shift for each gamma ray, to the data in the experimental pulse-height spectrum.

O Laboratório do Acelerador Linear do Instituto de Física da Universidade de São Paulo está desenvolvendo um estudo sobre a eficiência e a função resposta de detetores de HPGe a fótons de alta energia. Neste trabalho foi estudada a função resposta de fótons provenientes da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O. Na reação podem ser observados os fótons característicos de 6,1 MeV, 6,9 MeV e 7,1 MeV. Fótons com esta energia possuem um grande potencial para várias aplicações importantes, como \"Proton Induced Gamma-ray Emission\" (PIGE), gamagrafia e procedimentos de calibração. No caso de procedimentos de calibração essa reação possui um diferencial: o fluxo de fótons observado é bem maior do que em outras reações estudadas, tais como 27Al (p, gama)28Si e 23Na(p, gama)24Mg. Os experimentos foram realizados no Laboratório de Análise de Materiais por Feixes Iônicos (LAMFI) do IFUSP, utilizando um acelerador eletrostático tipo \"Pelletron-tandem\" de 1,7 MV de tensão máxima no terminal. O detetor estudado foi um HPGe do tipo coaxial \"reverse-electrode closed-end\" com 72,5 mm de diâmetro e 60,5 mm de comprimento e 60% da eficiência de um detetor de NaI para fótons de 1,332 MeV. O detetor foi posicionado a 0 grau em relação à linha de feixe. A corrente de prótons na irradiação era da ordem de 50 nA e a energia dos prótons variou entre 1,36 MeV e 1,42 MeV. O alvo utilizado consistia em 250 micro g/cm^2 de CaF2 evaporado em um suporte de Ta. Os picos dos três fótons da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O apresentaram deformações devido à emissão em vôo dos fótons. Essas deformações apresentam variações em função da energia dos prótons. Com o objetivo de descrever as formas dos picos foi desenvolvido um programa que utiliza a técnica de Monte Carlo para simulá-las. Os dados sobre \"yields\" relativos dos fótons e seção de choque da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O encontrados na literatura são imprecisos e contraditórios. Então, como parte dos resultados deste trabalho, foram obtidos os \"yields\" relativos dos fótons da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O para energias de prótons entre 1,360 MeV e 1,420 MeV. A função resposta do detetor para as diferentes formas dos picos foram obtidas através de simulações com o programa MCNP5. Para estas simulações foi feita uma descrição detalhada da geometria interna do detetor, obtida por meio de radiografias do mesmo. As intensidades relativas dos fótons da reação 19F(p,alfa gama)16O em função da energia dos prótons puderam ser obtidas através de um ajuste por mínimos quadrados das funções respostas simuladas aos espectros experimentais de altura de pulso. / In the 19F(p, alpha gamma)16O reaction, characteristic gamma-rays with energies: 6.1 MeV; 6.9 MeV and 7.1 keV can be observed. These photons can be used in many important applications such as Proton Induced Gamma-ray Emission (PIGE), gamma radiography and calibration purposes. It has another advantage in calibration procedures, which is the observed photon flux is greater than other reactions studied, 27Al(p, gamma)28Si and 23Na(p, gamma)24Mg. In our laboratory, we are studying the efficiency and response function of HPGe detectors for high energy photons, and for this it is necessary a source with a level scheme with a few gamma-ray transitions and known relative yields. The 19F(p, alpha gamma)16O reaction satisfies the first condition but in the literature we found relative yields for thick targets or reaction cross section for thin targets. However, we use targets of intermediate thickness, therefore in this work we measure the relative gamma-ray yields for protons with energies between 1.36 MeV and 1.42 MeV. The experiments were performed at the 1.7 MV Pelletron tandem accelerator of the Laboratório de Análise de Materiais por Feixes Iônicos (LAMFI) located at Instituto de Física da Universidade de São Paulo, using a reverse-electrode closed-end coaxial HPGe detector with 72.5 mm in diameter and 60.5 mm in length, at 0 degree. The proton irradiation current was 50 nA, and the target consisted of 250 micro g/cm^2 CaF2 evaporated on a 0.1 mm Ta backing. In this reaction the 20Ne resonant state fissions in flight, and the resulting 16O excited states have different half-lives; all observed peaks are deformed due to either Doppler broadening from 16O random velocity direction or Doppler shift from nuclei that leave the target toward the vacuum chamber. Moreover, the peak deformations vary with the proton energy. These deformations were modeled by a Monte Carlo simulation that follows the oxygen nuclei in its trajectory until photon emission, considering the changes in spatial distribution of the exact interaction point in the target with incident proton energy due to the large resonance width and proton energy loss, and 16O energy loss and multiple scattering until decay, in the different target layers. Using the detector response functions calculated by MCNP5 simulations, the relative intensities of the three gamma rays were obtained by a least square fit of the response functions, taking into account the Doppler broadening and shift for each gamma ray, to the data in the experimental pulse-height spectrum.

A prerequisite for modern radiotherapy is the ability to accurately determine the absorbed dose (D) that is given to the patient. The subject of this thesis has been to develop and evaluate efficient dose calculation models for high-energy photon beams delivered by linear accelerators. Even though the considered calculation models are general, the work has been focused on quality assurance (QA) tools used to independently verify the dose for individual treatment plans. The purpose of this verification is to guarantee patient safety and to improve the treatment outcome. Furthermore, a vital part of this work has been to explore the prospect of estimating the dose calculation uncertainties associated with individual treatment setups. A discussion on how such uncertainty estimations can facilitate improved clinical QA procedures by providing appropriate action levels has also been included within the scope of this thesis. In order to enable efficient modelling of the physical phenomena that are involved in dose output calculations it is convenient to divide them into two main categories; the first one dealing with the radiation exiting the accelerator’s treatment head and a second one associated with the subsequent energy deposition processes. A multi-source model describing the distribution of energy fluence emitted from the treatment head per delivered monitor unit (MU) is presented and evaluated through comparisons with measurements in multiple photon beams and collimator settings. The calculations show close agreement with the extensive set of experimental data, generally within +/-1% of corresponding measurements. The energy (dose) deposition in the irradiated object has been modelled through a photon pencil kernel solely based on a beam quality index (TPR20,10). This model was evaluated in a similar manner as the multi-source model at three different treatment depths. A separate study was focused on the specific difficulties associated with dose calculations in points located at a distance from the central beam axis. Despite the minimal input data required to characterize individual photon beams, the accuracy proved to be very good when comparing the calculated results with experimental data. The evaluated calculation models were finally used to analyse how well the lateral dose distributions from typical megavoltage photon beams are optimized with respect to the resulting beam flatness characteristics. The results did not reveal any obvious reasons why different manufacturers should provide different lateral dose distributions. Furthermore, the performed lateral optimizations indicate that there is room for improved flatness performance for the investigated linear accelerators.

The department of Radiation Sciences at Umeå University has obtained an old linear accelerator, intended for educational purposes. The goal of this thesis was to find proper reinforced radiation protection in an intended bunker (a room with thick concrete walls), to ensure that the radiation outside the bunker falls within acceptable levels. The main method was with the use of Monte Carlo-simulations. To properly simulate the accelerator, knowledge of the energy distribution of emitted radiation was needed. For this, a novel method for spectra determination, using several depth dose measurements including off-axis, was developed. A method that shows promising results in finding the spectra when measurements outside the primary beam are included. The found energy spectrum was then used to simulate the accelerator in the intended bunker. The resulting dose distribution was visualized together with 3D CAD-images of the bunker, to easily see in which locations outside the bunker where the dose was high. An important finding was that some changes are required to ensure that the public does not receive too high doses of radiation on a public outdoor-area that is located above the bunker. Otherwise, the accelerator is only allowed to be run 1.8 hours per year. A workaround to this problem could be to just plant a thorn bush, covering the dangerous area of radius 3m. After such a measure has been taken, which is assumed in the following results, the focus moves to the radiation that leaks into the accelerator’s intended control room, which is located right outside the bunker’s entrance door. The results show that the accelerator is only allowed to be run for a maximum of 6.1 or 3.3 hours per year (depending on the placement of the accelerator in the room), without a specific extra reinforced radiation protection consisting mainly of lead bricks. With the specific extra protection added, the accelerator is allowed to be run 44 or 54 hours per year instead, showing a distinct improvement. However, the dose rate to the control room was still quite high, 13.7 μGy/h or 11.2 μGy/h, compared to the average dose received by someone living in Sweden, which is 0.27 μGy/h. Therefore, further measures are recommended. This is however a worst case scenario, since the leakage spectrum from the accelerator itself was simulated as having the same energy spectrum as the primarybeam at 0.1 % of the intensity, which is the maximum leakage dose according to the specifications for the accelerator. This is probably an overestimation of the intensity. Also, the energy spectra of the leakage is probably of lower energy than the primary beam in at least some directions. Implementing more knowledge of the leak spectra in future work, should therefore result in more allowed run hours for the accelerator.

Orientador: Aparecido Augusto de Carvalho / Banca: Cláudio Kitano / Banca: Walter Katsumi Sakamoto / Banca: Tony Inácio da Silva / Banca: Giuliano Pierre Estevam / Resumo: Sensores piroelétricos podem ser utilizados para medir a taxa de fluência de energia (intensidade) da radiação X na faixa de diagnóstico médico e de ortovoltagem. Neste trabalho, foi implementado um sistema eletrônico que pode medir taxa de fluência de energia de radiação gama de 1,25 MeV e fótons X de 6 MV e 15 MV. O sistema é constituído por um sensor piroelétrico, um conversor corrente-tensão de alta sensibilidade e um instrumento para registrar a forma de onda e medir o pulso do sinal produzido pelo sensor. Este instrumento pode ser um osciloscópio, um circuito microcontrolado associado a um display de cristal líquido, ou um módulo de aquisição de dados e um laptop. O sensor piroelétrico e o conversor corrente-tensão foram alojados em uma câmara piroelétrica blindada. Seis tipos de sensores piroelétricos foram avaliados, sendo três cerâmicas e três compósitos. Os resultados obtidos com o sistema eletrônico, utilizando os diferentes tipos de sensores, possibilitaram caracterizá-lo em termos de precisão, resolução e sensibilidade. O sistema apresentou resposta linear com a taxa de fluência de energia da radiação, precisão melhor que 3 % e resolução de 5,56 nW/m2. As constantes piezoelétricas d33 dos sensores utilizados não sofreram alteração após os mesmos terem sido irradiados com 45 Gy de radiação na faixa de radioterapia. Estas características, associadas à importância de se medir a taxa de fluência de energia de radiação ionizante, podem tornar o instrumento piroelétrico muito útil no monitoramento de radiação produzida por equipamentos de radioterapia / Abstract: Pyroelectric sensors have been be used to measure the energy fluence rate (intensity) of x-radiation in the range of medical diagnosis and orthovoltage. In this work, we implemented an electronic system that can measure the energy fluence rate of 1.25 MeV gamma radiation, 6 MV and 15 MV X-photons. The system consists of a pyroelectric sensor, a high sensitivity current-to-voltage converter and an instrument for measuring and recording the waveform of pulses produced by the pyroelectric sensor. This instrument may be an oscilloscope, a microcontrolled circuit associated with a liquid crystal display, or a data acquisition module connected to a laptop. The pyroelectric sensor and the current-tovoltage converter were placed in an shielded pyroelectric camera. Six types of pyroelectric sensors were evaluated, three ceramics and three composites. The results obtained with the electronic system, using different types of sensors, allowed us to characterize it in terms of precision, resolution and sensitivity. The system has linear response to the energy fluence rate of radiation, precision better than 3 % and resolution of 5,6 nW/m2. The piezoelectric constant d33 of the sensors used have not changed after these have been irradiated with 45 Gy of radiotherapy radiation. These characteristics, associated with the importance of measuring the ionizing radiation energy fluence rate may make the pyroelectric instrument very useful in monitoring radiation produced by radiotherapy equipments / Doutor

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:32:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-02-25Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:22:12Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 pontes_w_dr_ilha.pdf: 799811 bytes, checksum: 398dc35d3e3ae3ef3dfe294f8ba6793c (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Sensores piroelétricos podem ser utilizados para medir a taxa de fluência de energia (intensidade) da radiação X na faixa de diagnóstico médico e de ortovoltagem. Neste trabalho, foi implementado um sistema eletrônico que pode medir taxa de fluência de energia de radiação gama de 1,25 MeV e fótons X de 6 MV e 15 MV. O sistema é constituído por um sensor piroelétrico, um conversor corrente-tensão de alta sensibilidade e um instrumento para registrar a forma de onda e medir o pulso do sinal produzido pelo sensor. Este instrumento pode ser um osciloscópio, um circuito microcontrolado associado a um display de cristal líquido, ou um módulo de aquisição de dados e um laptop. O sensor piroelétrico e o conversor corrente-tensão foram alojados em uma câmara piroelétrica blindada. Seis tipos de sensores piroelétricos foram avaliados, sendo três cerâmicas e três compósitos. Os resultados obtidos com o sistema eletrônico, utilizando os diferentes tipos de sensores, possibilitaram caracterizá-lo em termos de precisão, resolução e sensibilidade. O sistema apresentou resposta linear com a taxa de fluência de energia da radiação, precisão melhor que 3 % e resolução de 5,56 nW/m2. As constantes piezoelétricas d33 dos sensores utilizados não sofreram alteração após os mesmos terem sido irradiados com 45 Gy de radiação na faixa de radioterapia. Estas características, associadas à importância de se medir a taxa de fluência de energia de radiação ionizante, podem tornar o instrumento piroelétrico muito útil no monitoramento de radiação produzida por equipamentos de radioterapia / Pyroelectric sensors have been be used to measure the energy fluence rate (intensity) of x-radiation in the range of medical diagnosis and orthovoltage. In this work, we implemented an electronic system that can measure the energy fluence rate of 1.25 MeV gamma radiation, 6 MV and 15 MV X-photons. The system consists of a pyroelectric sensor, a high sensitivity current-to-voltage converter and an instrument for measuring and recording the waveform of pulses produced by the pyroelectric sensor. This instrument may be an oscilloscope, a microcontrolled circuit associated with a liquid crystal display, or a data acquisition module connected to a laptop. The pyroelectric sensor and the current-tovoltage converter were placed in an shielded pyroelectric camera. Six types of pyroelectric sensors were evaluated, three ceramics and three composites. The results obtained with the electronic system, using different types of sensors, allowed us to characterize it in terms of precision, resolution and sensitivity. The system has linear response to the energy fluence rate of radiation, precision better than 3 % and resolution of 5,6 nW/m2. The piezoelectric constant d33 of the sensors used have not changed after these have been irradiated with 45 Gy of radiotherapy radiation. These characteristics, associated with the importance of measuring the ionizing radiation energy fluence rate may make the pyroelectric instrument very useful in monitoring radiation produced by radiotherapy equipments