Methylation of lysine residues in histone tails is an intensively studied epigenetic signal that regulates transcription throughout development. Methylation of histone 3 lysine 4 (H3K4) is usually associated with promoters of actively transcribed genes whereas H3K27 or H3K9 methylation silences genes. Yeast possess only one H3K4 methyltransferase, Set1. In contrast, there are six enzymes capable of catalyzing this modification in mammals implying a certain specialization or division of labor. The present study examined the functions of the mouse H3K4 methyltransferase paralogs, Mixed Lineage Leukemia 1 (Mll1) and Mll2, during neural differentiation and reprogramming of neural stem (NS) cells to induced pluripotency. We could show that Mll2 is required for differentiation of embryonic stem (ES) cells to neural progenitors and identified Nuclear transport factor 2-like export factor 2 (Nxt2) as essential target gene. Mll2 trimethylated the Nxt2 promoter in ES cells in order to allow for transcriptional upregulation during subsequent neural differentiation. Additionally, Mll2 prevented apoptosis of differentiating cells by regulating B cell leukemia/lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) levels. Mll1 could replace Mll2 after the first steps of cell commitment towards epiblast stem (EpiS) cells. While Mll2 activity was only required briefly when ES cells started to differentiate, the influence of Mll1 seemed to increase with developmental progression. It stabilized the NS cell state by regulating expression of the neural transcription factor Orthodenticle homolog 2 (Otx2). Thereby, Mll1 impeded early steps of reprogramming to induced pluripotency and its inactivation increased the efficiency. Besides their specificity for certain target genes, both enzymes also differed in their activity. The major function of Mll1 was to prevent silencing by H3K27 methylation and possibly recruitment of transcription factors. In contrast, Mll2 conducted H3K4 trimethylation of its target genes. Importantly, once established in NS cells, the expression of Nxt2 became independent of promoter H3K4 methylation. Thus, Mll2 and its target gene Nxt2 represent an example for H3K4 methylation functioning as priming mechanism rather than for fine-tuning or maintenance of transcription levels.

Methylation of lysine residues in histone tails is an intensively studied epigenetic signal that regulates transcription throughout development. Methylation of histone 3 lysine 4 (H3K4) is usually associated with promoters of actively transcribed genes whereas H3K27 or H3K9 methylation silences genes. Yeast possess only one H3K4 methyltransferase, Set1. In contrast, there are six enzymes capable of catalyzing this modification in mammals implying a certain specialization or division of labor. The present study examined the functions of the mouse H3K4 methyltransferase paralogs, Mixed Lineage Leukemia 1 (Mll1) and Mll2, during neural differentiation and reprogramming of neural stem (NS) cells to induced pluripotency. We could show that Mll2 is required for differentiation of embryonic stem (ES) cells to neural progenitors and identified Nuclear transport factor 2-like export factor 2 (Nxt2) as essential target gene. Mll2 trimethylated the Nxt2 promoter in ES cells in order to allow for transcriptional upregulation during subsequent neural differentiation. Additionally, Mll2 prevented apoptosis of differentiating cells by regulating B cell leukemia/lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) levels. Mll1 could replace Mll2 after the first steps of cell commitment towards epiblast stem (EpiS) cells. While Mll2 activity was only required briefly when ES cells started to differentiate, the influence of Mll1 seemed to increase with developmental progression. It stabilized the NS cell state by regulating expression of the neural transcription factor Orthodenticle homolog 2 (Otx2). Thereby, Mll1 impeded early steps of reprogramming to induced pluripotency and its inactivation increased the efficiency. Besides their specificity for certain target genes, both enzymes also differed in their activity. The major function of Mll1 was to prevent silencing by H3K27 methylation and possibly recruitment of transcription factors. In contrast, Mll2 conducted H3K4 trimethylation of its target genes. Importantly, once established in NS cells, the expression of Nxt2 became independent of promoter H3K4 methylation. Thus, Mll2 and its target gene Nxt2 represent an example for H3K4 methylation functioning as priming mechanism rather than for fine-tuning or maintenance of transcription levels.

Apoptose und Seneszenz sind stress-responsive, genetisch verankerte „Failsafe“- Mechanismen, welche die Zelle vor maligner Transformation schützen. Onkogenes Ras induziert zelluläre Seneszenz über den p16/Retinoblastoma (Rb)-Signalweg und führt dabei zu einem permanenten Zellzyklusarrest - das tumorsuppressive Potential von Seneszenz in vivo bleibt jedoch bis heute fraglich. In seneszenten Zellen ist die Expression von S-Phase relevanten Gene durch die lokale Ausbildung von Heterochromatin, bzw. der Methylierung von Histon H3 an Lysin 9 (H3K9me) blockiert. Dies lässt vermuten, dass Seneszenz ein epigenetische kontrollierter Prozess ist und von Proteinen wie der Rb-assozierte Histonmethyltransferase Suv39h1 reguliert wird. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass Eµ-N-Ras transgene Mäuse mit heterozygoten Läsionen im Suv39h1 oder p53 Lokus aggressive T-Zell Lymphome entwickeln, die gegen Suv39h1, bzw. p53-Expression selektieren. Im Gegensatz dazu entwickeln N-Ras-transgene Wildtyp-Tiere („Kontrollen“) vorrangig nicht-lymphoide Tumoren und sterben signifikant später. In primären Lymphozyten induziert onkogenes Ras einen Suv39h1-abhängigen, H3K9me-assoziierten Proliferationsarrest und kann dadurch Lymphomgenese verhindern. Suv39h1-defiziente Lymphomzellen wachsen exponentiell und sind, entgegen p53 defizienten Zellen, sensitiv gegenüber Adriamycin-induzierten Zelltod (Apoptose). Jedoch arretieren nur Kontroll-Lymphome unter Therapie in vitro wenn Apoptose blockiert ist, nicht aber Suv39h1 oder p53-defiziente Lymphomzellen. Diese Resultate identifizieren Ras-induzierte Seneszenz als einen neuen, H3K9me-abhängigen Tumorsuppressor-Mechanismus, wobei dessen Inaktivierung die Entwicklung von aggressiven, aber dennoch Apoptose-kompetenten Lymphomen herbeiführt. / Cellular “failsafe” programs like apoptosis or senescence are genetically encoded, stress-responsive mechanisms that ultimately counteract malignant transformation. Acute induction of oncogenic Ras provokes cellular senescence that involves the p16/Retinoblastoma (Rb) pathway to induce a permanent arrest, but the tumor suppressive mechanism in vivo still remains questionable. Senescent cells display heterochromatic features on S-phase relevant genes involving methylation of histone H3 on lysine 9 (H3K9me), which may depend on the Rb-associated histone methyltransferase Suv39h1. In the present thesis it was shown that Eµ-N-Ras transgenic mice harboring targeted heterozygous lesions at the Suv39h1, or the p53 locus for comparison, succumb to invasive T cell lymphomas that lack expression of Suv39h1 or p53, respectively. By contrast, most N-Ras-transgenic wildtype (“control”) animals develop a non-lymphoid neoplasia significantly later. Proliferation of primary lymphocytes is directly stalled by a Suv39h1-dependent, H3K9me-related senescent growth arrest in response to oncogenic Ras, thereby cancelling lymphomagenesis at an initial step. Suv39h1-deficient lymphoma cells grow rapidly but, unlike p53-deficient cells, remain highly susceptible to adriamycin-induced apoptosis. In contrast, only control, but not Suv39h1-deficient or p53-deficient lymphomas senesce after drug therapy when apoptosis is blocked. These results identify H3K9me-mediated senescence as a novel Suv39h1-dependent tumour suppressor mechanism whose inactivation permits the formation of aggressive but apoptosis-competent lymphomas in response to oncogenic Ras.