A major challenge in tire, as well as in road engineering, is to understand the intricate mechanisms of friction. Pavement texture is a feature of the road surface that determines most tire-road interactions, and can be grouped into two classes: macro-texture, resulting mainly in the hysteretic component of friction, and micro-texture, resulting in adhesion. If both textures are maintained at high levels, they can help provide sufficient resistance to skidding. The ultimate objective of this research is to develop a physics-based multiscale rubber-road friction model that can predict the effectiveness of the tire as it interacts with the vehicle and the pavement. The model is developed based on sound physics and contact mechanics theories and uses road profile measurements and data measured on various tire compounds. To be able to predict road surface characteristics, it is proven that road surfaces are of fractal nature on given ranges of scale. It is shown that while global fractal quantities fail to classify pavement profiles, a local fractal parameter and three other texture parameters can separate road profiles that have different friction characteristics. Through the implementation of various contact theories and by conducting simulation studies, a methodical understanding of contact mechanics and of the effect of the diverse factors that influence friction is attained. To predict the viscoelastic friction between any given tire tread compound and road, the Nanovea JR25 portable optical profilometer is used to measure the road profiles. To characterize the road profile, the one-dimensional pavement measurements are used to obtain the two-dimensional power spectrum, followed by testing and characterizing the tread compounds (this is being carried out by Bridgestone). This data is used to develop a comprehensive analytical methodology to predict friction. To validate this model, a Dynamic Friction Test apparatus is designed and built. The friction tester enables measurement of the friction between tread compound samples and arbitrary surfaces, at different slip ratios. The correlations between the simulations and both indoor and outdoor experimental results are investigated. / Ph. D.

Rubber friction is an important aspect to tire engineers, material developers and pavement engineers because of its importance in the estimation of forces generated at the contact, which further helps in optimizing tire and vehicle performances, and to estimate tire wear. It mainly depends on the material properties, contact mechanics and operating condition. There are two major contributions to rubber friction, due to repeated viscoelastic deformation from undulations of surface called hysteresis and due to Vander Waals interaction of the molecules called adhesion. The study focuses on analytical modeling of friction for stationary sliding of rubber block on rough surfaces. Two novel approaches are discussed and compared. Frictional shear stress is obtained from the energy dissipated at the contact interface due to the elastic deformations of rubber block at different length scales. Contact mechanics theories based on continuity approach combined with stochastic processes to estimate the real contact area, mean penetration depth and true stresses at contact depending on operating conditions. Rubber properties are highly temperature dependent. Temperature model developed based on heat diffusion relation is integrated to consider the effects of temperature rise due to frictional heating. Model results are validated with theoretical results of literature. Simulation results of friction model is obtained for Compound A sliding on rough surface. Material properties are obtained using Dynamic Mechanical Analysis and Time temperature superposition. Influence of the friction models under different conditions are discussed. Model results are validated with experimental data from Dynamic friction tester on a 120-grit surface followed by future works. / Master of Science / Friction is a complex phenomenon that occurs in all tribological application. It is termed as the ratio of the shear force resisting the motion of the component to the normal force acting on the component. Microscopic observation has observed the importance of the effective contact area and roughness of the substrates in the influence of the friction. Rubber friction is an important aspect to tire engineers, material developers and pavement engineers because of its importance in the estimation of forces generated at the contact, which further helps in optimizing tire and vehicle performances, and to estimate tire wear. Because of the viscoelastic nature of rubber, the friction in rubber is much more complicated than observed for elastic materials and hence depends on the material properties apart from contact mechanics and operating condition. There are two major contributions to rubber friction, due to repeated viscoelastic deformation from undulations of surface called hysteresis and due to Vander Waals interaction of the molecules called adhesion. The study focuses on analytical modeling of friction for stationary sliding of rubber block on rough surfaces. Two novel approaches are discussed and compared. Frictional shear stress is obtained from the energy dissipated at the contact interface due to the elastic deformations of rubber block at different length scales. Contact mechanics theories based on continuity approach combined with stochastic processes to estimate the real contact area, mean penetration depth and true stresses at contact depending on operating conditions. Rubber properties are highly temperature dependent. Temperature model developed based on heat diffusion relation is integrated to consider the effects of temperature rise due to frictional heating. Model results are validated with theoretical results of literature. Simulation results of friction model is obtained for Compound A sliding on rough surface. Material properties are obtained using Dynamic Mechanical Analysis and Time temperature superposition. Influence of the friction models under different conditions are discussed. Model results are validated with experimental data from Dynamic friction tester on a 120-grit surface followed by future works.

No description available.

Tire, or in its primitive form, Wheel, an important invention for the transportation sector, has evolved from a circular block of hard and durable material to one of the most complex and influential components of an automobile. It is the only means of contact between the vehicle and the road and is responsible for generating forces and moments that impact vehicle performance, stability, and control. Tire tribology is the study of interacting surfaces in relative motion which includes friction and wear. Tire friction is an essential concept for estimating the tractive effort/ traction at the tire-road interface that further helps to determine the control and stability of the vehicle. In contrary, it also results in rolling resistance and wear. Tire and vehicle engineers are henceforth interested in a robust and efficient approach towards estimation of friction and wear. Past experimental observations using tread compound samples have revealed the different factors influencing the friction at the contacting interface. In addition, different mechanisms or components resulting in frictional losses, being Hysteretic, Adhesive and Viscous, and wear being abrasive, fatigue, adhesive and corrosive were also observed. Although experimental and empirical observations have provided us with an accurate estimation of friction and wear parameters, it is very tedious and expensive approach. Recent developments in the computational power encouraged researchers and engineers towards evolution of analytical and numerical models considering the underlying physical mechanisms at the contact interface. Past research studies developed multiscale techniques for estimation of friction coefficient due to hysteretic losses from internal damping of the rubber material because of oscillation from surface undulations. Later, contact mechanics models developed using Hertzian technique or stochastic approach were considered in conjunction with frictional losses to obtain the hysteretic component of friction to consider the effect of surface roughness. Previous studies at CenTiRe focused on surface characterization techniques and estimation of friction for dry surfaces using Persson and Klüppel's approach. Comparative studies unveiled the importance of considering pressure/ normal load towards friction estimation. In addition, it was found that effect of adhesion for estimation of contact mechanics parameters must be considered. The present work focusses on obtaining a conceptual framework to model a comprehensive friction model considering the effect of surface roughness, substrate condition and asperity interaction. A finite element simulation of rubber block sliding on a rough substrate is performed using a multiscale technique for estimation of friction and contact mechanics under dry condition. The estimated contact mechanics and friction is compared with analytical models and experimental measurements obtained using Linear sliding friction tester developed in collaboration with other members of the group. In addition, a FE model is developed to measure the wear properties of rubber material based on continuum damage mechanics and further obtain the wear profile of a rubber block sliding on a rough substrate. / Doctor of Philosophy / Tribology, a recent terminology for an age-old concept of friction, wear, and lubrication. the study of interacting surfaces in relative motion which includes friction and wear. Friction is the resisting force at the contact interface leading to heat build-up and material loss at the contact interface which is known as flash temperature and wear respectively. Tire is one of the most complex and influential components of a vehicle that helps in optimizing its performance for better stability and control. Knowledge of tire friction and wear is important for tire engineering and vehicle dynamics engineers as it helps in characterizing the handling characteristics of the vehicle, characterizing the tire material compounds to understand the tire durability. Rubber is a viscoelastic material, the friction and wear in rubber is intricate as opposed to other elastic materials. Based on experimental observations in the past, friction and wear are influenced by factors like material properties, normal load/ pressure, sliding velocity, temperature, surface characteristics, and environmental conditions. In addition, the frictional losses at the contact interface are considered to compose of adhesion, hysteresis and viscous components and wear is categorized as – adhesive, abrasive, fatigue, corrosive and erosive. Recent developments in computational power encouraged researchers and engineers in developing analytical and computational models that consider the physical mechanisms occurring at the contact interface. The present research focuses on obtaining a comprehensive friction and contact mechanics model considering the effect of surface roughness at different length scales, surface condition (dry/ wet) and asperity interaction. In addition, the developed model in conjunction with a brush model is considered for estimating the tire traction characteristics such as the forces and moments. A finite element simulation of rubber block sliding on a rough substrate is performed using a multiscale technique for estimation of friction, contact mechanics and abrasion parameters under dry condition. The results thus obtained are compared with the analytical model that is developed for wet conditions. Experimental validation of the friction estimated using the analytical and numerical methods will be performed using a linear sliding friction tester developed in collaboration with other members of the group.

No description available.

Dichtungen spielen für die Funktion von Maschinen eine zentrale Rolle. Sie verhindern den Austritt von Schmierstoff aus dem Innenraum in die Umgebung und das Eindringen von Schmutz von Außen. Neben einer möglichst guten Abdichtung ist jedoch auch die durch die Dichtung auftretende Reibung von immer größerer Bedeutung für die Funktionalität von Maschinen und Anlagen. Aus diesem Grund wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht, welche wesentlichen Einflussfaktoren das Reibmoment, bzw. den Reibwert von Radialwellendichtungen, beeinflussen. Experimentelle Untersuchungen erfolgen dafür an einem speziell entwickelten Versuchstand. Dabei wird ersichtlich, dass die Umfangsgeschwindigkeit, die Schmierstoffviskosität und die Temperatur im Dichtkontakt die wesentlichsten Einflussfaktoren bei einer festen Kombination aus Dichtung und Gegenlaufläche darstellen. Im Vergleich zwischen verschiedenen Dichtungen spielt zudem die Radialkraft der Dichtung eine entscheidende Rolle. Des weiteren wird ein komplexes Modell entwickelt, welches die Effekte im tribologischen Kontakt beschreibt und so das Reibmoment der Dichtung berechenbar macht. Berücksichtigt werden dabei sowohl die durch Oberflächenstrukturen beeinflusste Fluidreibung im Schmierspalt, als auch die Hysteresereibung im Dichtungsmaterial und die Temperatur im Dichtkontakt. Durch die Kopplung der Einzelmodelle wird zudem die gegenseitige Beeinflussung berücksichtigt. Die Simulationsergebnisse ermöglichen einen tiefen Einblick in das Zusammenwirken der Phänomene im Dichtkontakt. Das Modell erlaubt die Berechnung des Reibwertes der Dichtung anhand der Betriebsbedingungen. Der Vergleich zwischen numerischen und experimentellen Ergebnissen zeigt eine sehr gute Übereinstimmung. Ein weiteres, vereinfachtes Modell auf Basis der Gümbelzahl ermöglicht die direkte und extrem schnelle Berechnung des Reibwertes der Dichtung. Das reduzierte Modell kann hierbei sowohl von experimentellen als auch numerischen Ergebnissen parametriert werden.:1 Einleitung und Ziel der Arbeit 1 2 Stand des Wissens 3 2.1 Dynamische Dichtungen 3 2.2 Tribologie des Dichtkontaktes 4 2.2.1 Mechanismen im tribologischen Kontakt 5 2.2.2 Einflüsse auf die Dichtwirkung 6 2.2.3 Schmierfilmhypothesen 7 2.2.4 Stribeck-Kurve und Gümbelzahl 8 2.3 Materialeigenschaften von Elastomeren 9 2.4 Schmierstoffeigenschaften 11 2.5 Modelle zur Beschreibung von Dichtungsreibung 13 2.5.1 Modellierung der Hysteresereibung 14 2.5.2 Modellierung der Fluidreibung 16 2.5.3 Modellierung des Dichtungskontaktes 19 2.5.4 Modellierung der Temperatur im Dichtkontakt 20 3 Experimentelle Untersuchungen 21 3.1 Radialkraft 21 3.2 Kontaktbreite 23 3.3 Reibwertkennlinien 24 3.3.1 Radial-Dichtungsprüfstand 24 3.3.2 Ermittlung von Reibwertkennlinien unter stationären Randbedingungen 25 3.3.3 Ermittlung von Reibwertkennlinien unter instationären Randbedingungen 31 3.4 Elastomereigenschaften 34 3.4.1 Zugversuch 34 3.4.2 Dynamisch-Mechanisch-Thermische Analyse 34 4 Simulationen 37 4.1 FE-Modelle und Parametrierung 37 4.2 Modell zur Simulation des Dichtungsreibmomentes 39 4.2.1 Modellierung der Fluidreibung 40 4.2.2 Modellierung der Hysteresereibung 51 4.2.3 Approximation der Temperatur im Dichtkontakt 60 4.2.4 Kopplung/Abhängigkeiten 60 4.2.5 Berechnung der wahren Kontaktfläche 62 4.2.6 Ankopplung der Hysteresereibung 64 4.3 Ergebnisse zur Simulation des Dichtungsreibwertes 64 4.3.1 Fluidreibung 64 4.3.2 Hysteresereibung 69 4.3.3 Fluid- und Hysteresereibung 74 4.3.4 Einfluss der Umgebungstemperatur 77 4.3.5 Instationäre Randbedingungen 79 5 Zusammenfassung 83 A Einfluss der Maxwell-Äste auf das Ergebniss der Hysteresereibung 87 B Koeffizienten für die Flussfaktorenberechnung 89 Literaturverzeichnis 91 / Seals are very important for the proper function of machines. They prevent lubricant from escaping from the interior into the environment and the ingress of dust from outside. Yet not only the sealing properties are relevant, also the friction is getting more and more in focus. Therefore, in this thesis, the relevant influences on the friction moment, and on the friction coefficient are investigated. A special test rig has been developed for the experimental investigations. It has been found that the circumferential velocity and the lubricants viscosity in conjunction with the temperature at the seals contact are the main influence factors of a defined combination of seal and surface. For the comparison of different seals, the radial contact force has an important influence, too. Beside these experimental investigations a complex simulation model has been developed. It describes the effects inside the tribological contact and allows the calculation of the seals friction moment. The model uses calculation routines for the fluid friction due to the fluid film inside the seals contact with respect to the surface structures, as well as the hysteresis friction inside the seals lip. Furthermore, the seals contact temperature is calculated. All these models relate and respect the influence between each other. The simulation results allow a deep view on the phenomena inside the seals contact and their interaction with each other. The model allows the calculation of the friction coeficient. A good agreement between experimental and numeric results could be achieved. An additional, reduced model on basis of the Gümbel number allows a direct and extreme fast calculation of the friction coeficient. The reduced model could be parameterized both on experimental and simulation results.:1 Einleitung und Ziel der Arbeit 1 2 Stand des Wissens 3 2.1 Dynamische Dichtungen 3 2.2 Tribologie des Dichtkontaktes 4 2.2.1 Mechanismen im tribologischen Kontakt 5 2.2.2 Einflüsse auf die Dichtwirkung 6 2.2.3 Schmierfilmhypothesen 7 2.2.4 Stribeck-Kurve und Gümbelzahl 8 2.3 Materialeigenschaften von Elastomeren 9 2.4 Schmierstoffeigenschaften 11 2.5 Modelle zur Beschreibung von Dichtungsreibung 13 2.5.1 Modellierung der Hysteresereibung 14 2.5.2 Modellierung der Fluidreibung 16 2.5.3 Modellierung des Dichtungskontaktes 19 2.5.4 Modellierung der Temperatur im Dichtkontakt 20 3 Experimentelle Untersuchungen 21 3.1 Radialkraft 21 3.2 Kontaktbreite 23 3.3 Reibwertkennlinien 24 3.3.1 Radial-Dichtungsprüfstand 24 3.3.2 Ermittlung von Reibwertkennlinien unter stationären Randbedingungen 25 3.3.3 Ermittlung von Reibwertkennlinien unter instationären Randbedingungen 31 3.4 Elastomereigenschaften 34 3.4.1 Zugversuch 34 3.4.2 Dynamisch-Mechanisch-Thermische Analyse 34 4 Simulationen 37 4.1 FE-Modelle und Parametrierung 37 4.2 Modell zur Simulation des Dichtungsreibmomentes 39 4.2.1 Modellierung der Fluidreibung 40 4.2.2 Modellierung der Hysteresereibung 51 4.2.3 Approximation der Temperatur im Dichtkontakt 60 4.2.4 Kopplung/Abhängigkeiten 60 4.2.5 Berechnung der wahren Kontaktfläche 62 4.2.6 Ankopplung der Hysteresereibung 64 4.3 Ergebnisse zur Simulation des Dichtungsreibwertes 64 4.3.1 Fluidreibung 64 4.3.2 Hysteresereibung 69 4.3.3 Fluid- und Hysteresereibung 74 4.3.4 Einfluss der Umgebungstemperatur 77 4.3.5 Instationäre Randbedingungen 79 5 Zusammenfassung 83 A Einfluss der Maxwell-Äste auf das Ergebniss der Hysteresereibung 87 B Koeffizienten für die Flussfaktorenberechnung 89 Literaturverzeichnis 91