Muscle weakness is one of the major causes of post-stroke disability. Stroke rehabilitation programs now often incorporate the same type of resistance training that is used for healthy subjects; however, the training effects induced from these training strategies are often limited for stroke patients. An important resistance training principle is that an optimal level of stress is exerted on the neuromuscular system, both during concentric (shortening) and eccentric (lengthening) contractions. One potential problem for post-stroke patients might be difficulties achieving sufficient levels of stress on the neuromuscular system. This problem may be associated with altered muscular function after stroke. In healthy subjects, maximum strength during eccentric contractions is higher than during concentric contractions. In individuals with stroke, this difference in strength is often increased. Moreover, it has also been shown that individuals with stroke exhibit alteration with respect to how the strength varies throughout the range of motion. For example, healthy subjects exhibit a joint specific torque-angle relationship that normally is the same irrespective of contraction mode and contraction velocity. In contrast, individuals with stroke exhibit an overall change of the torque-angle relationship. This change, as described in the literature, consists of a more pronounced strength loss at short muscle length. In individuals with stroke, torque-angle relationships are only partially investigated and so far these relationships have not been analysed using testing protocols that include eccentric, isometric, and concentric modes of contraction.   This thesis investigates the torque-angle relationship of elbow flexors in subjects with stroke during all three modes of contractions – isometric, concentric, and eccentric ­– and the relative loading throughout the range of movement during a resistance exercise. In addition, this thesis studies possible central nervous system mechanisms involved in the control of muscle activation during eccentric and concentric contractions.   The torque-angle relationship during maximum voluntary elbow flexion was examined in stroke subjects (n=11), age-matched healthy subjects (n=11), and young subjects (n=11) during different contraction modes and velocities. In stroke subjects, maximum torque as well as the torque angle relationship was better preserved during eccentric contractions compared to concentric contractions. Furthermore, the relative loading during a resistance exercise at an intensity of 10RM (repetition maximum) was examined. Relative loading throughout the concentric phase of the resistance exercise, expressed as percentage of concentric torque, was found to be similar in all groups. However, relative loading during the eccentric contraction phase, expressed as the percentage of eccentric isokinetic torque, was significantly lower for the stroke group. In addition, when related to isometric maximum voluntary contraction, the loading for the stroke group was significantly lower than for the control groups during both the concentric and eccentric contraction phases. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to examine differences between recruited brain regions during the concentric and the eccentric phase of imagined maximum resistance exercise of the elbow flexors (motor imagery) in young healthy subjects (n=18) and in a selected sample of individuals with stroke (n=4). The motor and premotor cortex was less activated during imagined maximum eccentric contractions compared to imagined maximum concentric contraction of elbow flexors. Moreover, BA44 in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, a brain area that has been shown to be involved in inhibitory control of motor activity, was additionally recruited during eccentric compared to concentric conditions. This pattern was evident only on the contralesional (the intact hemisphere) in some of the stroke subjects. On the ipsilesional hemisphere, the recruitment in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex was similar for both modes of contractions.    Compared to healthy subjects, the stroke subjects exhibited altered muscular function comprising a specific reduction of torque producing capacity and deviant torque-angle relationship during concentric contractions. Therefore, the relative training load during the resistance exercise at a training intensity of 10RM was lower for subjects with stroke. Furthermore, neuroimaging data indicates that the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex may be involved in a mechanism that modulates cortical motor drive differently depending on mode of the contractions. This might partly be responsible for why it is impossible to fully activate a muscle during eccentric contractions. Moreover, among individuals with stroke, a disturbance of this system could also lie behind the lack of contraction mode-specific modulation of muscle activation that has been found in this population. The altered neuromuscular function evident after a stroke means that stroke victims may find it difficult to supply a sufficient level of stress during traditional resistance exercises to promote adaptation by the neuromuscular system. This insufficiency may partially explain why the increase in strength, in response to conventional resistance training, often has been found to be low among subjects with stroke. / Muskelsvaghet är en av orsakerna till funktionshinder efter stroke. I rehabiliteringsprogram för personer som drabbats av stroke förekommer det numera att styrketräning används i syfte att öka muskelstyrkan. Effekten av styrketräning har dock ofta visat sig vara begränsad. En viktig styrketräningsprincip är att muskulaturen belastas tillräckligt nära maximal styrka under både koncentriska kontraktioner (när man lyfter en vikt) och excentriska kontraktioner (när man kontrollerat sänker en vikt). Ett potentiellt problem skulle kunna vara att personer med stroke inte belastas optimalt under träning på grund av förändrad muskelfunktion. Efter stroke är muskelfunktionen ofta förändrad såtillvida att styrkenedsättningen är mer uttalad under koncentriska kontraktioner. Därutöver har man funnit att styrkenedsättningen är mest uttalad när muskeln är i sitt mest förkortade läge. Detta fenomen har dock inte studerats för alla tre kontraktionstyper, det vill säga excentriska, koncentriska och isometriska kontraktioner, hos personer med stroke.   Denna avhandling undersöker sambandet mellan styrka och ledvinkel över armbågsleden hos personer med stroke under alla tre kontraktionstyper – excentrisk, koncentrisk och isometrisk, samt relativ belastning genom rörelsebanan under en styrketräningsövning. Därutöver undersöker denna avhandling också hjärnans aktiveringsmönster under excentriska och koncentriska kontraktioner.   Sambandet mellan styrka och ledvinkel undersöktes hos personer med stroke (n = 11), åldersmatchade (n = 11) och unga försökspersoner (n = 11). Jämfört med kontrollgrupperna var maximal styrka för personer med stroke mest nedsatt, samt även den oproportionerligt stora styrkenedsättningen vid kort muskelängd som mest uttalad, under koncentriska kontraktioner. Denna avvikelse var minst uttalad vid excentriska kontraktioner. Vidare studerades hur hög belastningen på muskulaturen var i jämförelse med muskelns maximala styrka under en styrketräningsliknande övning för armbågsflexorer vid en träningsintensitet på 10RM. Den uppmätta belastningen under den koncentriska fasen av styrketräningsövningen, uttryckt som procent av den genomsnittliga koncentriska styrkan, var densamma för alla grupperna. Under den excentriska fasen av övningen var dock belastningen, uttryckt som procent av den maximala excentriska styrkan, signifikant lägre för personer med stroke. Träningsbelastningen utgjorde också en lägre andel av den maximala isometriska styrkan för personer med stroke, både under den koncentriska och under den excentriska fasen.   Funktionell magnetresonanstomografi (fMRI) användes för att undersöka hjärnans aktiveringsmönster hos unga försökspersoner (n = 18) och hos individer med stroke (n = 4) när de föreställde sig att de utförde maximal styrketräning för armbågsflexorer (motor imagery). Resultatet visade att primära motorbarken och premotoriska barken var mindre aktiverade när unga friska försökspersonerna föreställde sig utföra maximala excentriska, jämfört med maximala koncentriska kontraktioner. Dessutom var en region i ventrolaterala prefrontala barken, som i tidigare studier visat sig vara inblandat i reglering och hämning av muskelaktivering, mer aktiverade under föreställda excentriska kontraktioner. Detta aktiveringsmönster i den prefrontala barken återfanns dock endast i den icke skadade hjärnhalvan hos personer med stroke.   Jämfört med kontrollgrupperna uppvisade försökspersonerna med stroke en förändrad muskelfunktion som bestod av en specifik nedsättning av styrkan under koncentriska kontraktioner samt också ett mer avvikande samband mellan styrka och ledvinkel under koncentriska kontraktioner. Den relativa belastningen under utförandet av en styrketräningsövning med en intensitet på 10RM var på grund av dessa avvikelser lägre för försökspersoner med stroke. Hjärnavbildnings-studierna indikerade att ventrolaterala prefrontala barken verkar vara involverat i ett kortikalt moduleringssystem som reglerar muskel-aktivering olika beroende på kontraktionstyp under maximala kontraktioner. Detta skulle kunna vara en underliggande mekanism bakom den hittills obesvarade frågan varför det är omöjligt att aktivera muskulaturen maximalt under excentriska kontraktioner. En störning av detta moduleringssystem hos personer med stroke verkar också kunna ligga bakom den förändrade regleringen av muskelaktivering som visat sig förekomma hos personer med stroke. Neuromuskulär funktion efter stroke är förändrad i flera avseenden vilket verkar medföra att muskulaturen inte belastas optimalt under konventionell styrketräning. Detta kan vara en delförklaring till varför styrkeökningen som svar på träning ofta är liten hos personer med stroke.

The search for evidence of cognitive abilities in young children that have been previously detected only in the performance of older children and adults has been a target of study by many cognitive developmental psychologists. Early competency views suggest that aspects of cognitive fundamentals are present very early in life and are in some aspects developmentally invariant. Often, the focus of research is on the delineation of the constraints which direct and restrict deployment of early intellectual abilities to illuminate the regularities and patterns in observed developmental change. The purpose of this research was to examine children's proficiency with mental rotation tasks that involved the reorientation of complex multi-component stimuli. Specifically, the existence of stimulus effect and determination of which stimulus components prove problematic under taxing performance conditions was investigated. Sixteen students, eight first graders and eight third graders, participated in a two-choice discrimination task. Each student was assessed individually on 360 test trials in eight 20-minute sessions. Three test conditions included (1) perception, (2) memory, and (3) rotation. Two multi-component stimuli were used in which the experimenter-defined components included (A) an external protrusion on the edge of a circle, and (B) an internal axis system within the interior of the circle. The two stimuli varied in the placement of the internal axes which was either orthogonally or obliquely orientated. Test items in the memory and the rotation conditions included stimuli orthogonally oriented (90°, 180°, 270°) obliquely oriented (45°, 135°, 225°, 315°). Error scores were analyzed in a four-way analysis of variance. A main effect for foil type was found significant with axis foils being more difficult than protrusion foils. Furthermore, a significant four-way interaction effect was detected indicating that as stimulus characteristics and task demands increased in difficulty, performance declined particularly for the younger age group.

A problem in counselor education is the need to develop methods that would be more directly related to effective outcome in counseling. Researchers have concluded that success in counseling goals is related to clients' increased ability to monitor and modify their own behaviors and that counselor trainees whose education included an emphasis on learning self-regulation skills would be more effective in bringing about greater client self-regulation. Another need is for a theoretical formulation toward the development of more effective instructional methods. The concepts of holism and self-control, which were considered potentially useful within the theoretical system of Adler's Individual Psychology were combined with the methods of biofeedback, imagery, and self-control skills training in the synthesis of a prototypical instructional set. The purpose of the study was to experimentally evaluate this set and the potential validity and utility of the proposed conceptual framework. The hypothesis was that four graduate counselor students would demonstrate improvement in self-regulatory attitudes and behaviors after the treatment condition, which consisted of the instructional set. Electromyographic (EMG) physiological measurements, and scores on the Adult Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External locus-of-control scale were used to assess changes in the subjects' self-regulation, using the single-subject, multiple baseline across-subjects experiment design. Analysis of the results showed that subjects improved in control of muscle activity and in attitudinal direction of internal locus of control. The EMG physiological measurement was considered useful for this type of study, showing an adequate balance of sensitivity and stability. However, the locus-of-control measure was not considered adequate for this population because of an observed "floor" effect. The results were interpreted as having supported the hypothesis and were considered to have established the usefulness of the theoretical framework to generate research and the potential utility of the instructional method in counselor education. Suggestions are made for improvement for the use of EMG scores in the baseline phase and for minimal requirements for an adequate attitudinal scale for further research in this area.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of integrating the practice of imaging into dance training. Three skill components were identified which comprise the objective of imaging practices for dancers: a highly developed physical capacity for skilled movement; a well developed psychological makeup; an ability to become transformed. The design of a methodology integrating the elements of the skill components in dynamic relationships through imaging practices is investigated in various class and workshop situations. Definitions of the elements within this design are derived from the principal theories currently practiced in the fields of dance and body techniques, wholistic and psychosomatic health practices, and sports psychology. Creation and retention of plasticity in the developmental dynamic of the skill components emerges as an essential integrating factor within imaging practices. Increases in students' movement skills, concentration spans, and liveliness during performance are significant subjective results of integrating imaging practices in dance training.

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Imagery rescripting (ImRs) is a psychological intervention effective in treating intrusive images in PTSD. Studies have suggested factors in ImRs which may influence outcome; however, research is still in its infancy, with mechanisms of action still unknown and factors which make it successful unclear (Arntz, 2012). This study aimed to investigate therapists' experience of the process of delivering ImRs in PTSD and what they believe make it an effective intervention. The study used a Grounded Theory (GT) approach to investigate eight therapists' experience of using ImRs in PTSD, and their view of what makes it successful. A GT analysis produced a model illustrating the process of using ImRs, consisting of four theoretical themes: using ImRs in PTSD, facing obstacles in working with the imagination, identifying the mechanisms of action and moving from the unknown to the known. The main suggested mechanisms of action involved re-establishing power and enabling an emotional shift to occur. The model highlighted inter-relationships existing, with distinct themes feeding into each other. The GT model suggested more structure and research is required for an increased understanding in ImRs, allowing therapists to feel more confident and comfortable using the perceived anxiety-provoking technique. Future research could focus on interesting findings from this study allowing an already powerful therapeutic tool to develop and become a more widely-used and prioritised treatment technique in PTSD.

Intrusive images are a common phenomenon in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; American Psychological Society, 2013). Imagery-Rescripting (ImRs; Arntz & Weertman, 1999) is an experiential technique for targeting intrusive images and is gaining popularity as a treatment for PTSD (Arntz, 2012). Although there is evidence to suggest that ImRs is an effective treatment of PTSD (see Arntz, 2012), it is currently unclear how ImRs works. The aims of the present study were 1) to develop a coding scheme that captured important factors of ImRs session, and 2) to apply this coding scheme prospectively to investigate how certain factors might relate to treatment outcome. The study used thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) to develop an ImRs coding scheme. Next, a single case experimental design was employed to track six participants over the course of their ImRs therapy for PTSD. Session content captured by the coding scheme was compared to changes in weekly outcome measures to investigate whether the presence of certain codes related to a reduction in PTSD symptoms. Results suggested a number of factors might be important for determining treatment outcome. Specifically, Attitude towards ImRs, Activation of the image, Ability to follow ImRs, Activation of original internal processes and internal processes during the re-script, Believability and Attitude towards the outcome are suggested as potentially important factors for determining ImRs efficacy. Study strengths, limitations and clinical implications are discussed. Recommendations for future research, including in-depth investigation of individual factors are suggested.

In the composition Archetypal Dreams, musical imagery is created through motifs and ideas that represent the symbolic messages of the unconscious. These motifs are introduced, developed, transformed, and overlapped in contrapuntal dialogue. This unfolding of material grows in significance and complexity building to a resolution of tension. The relationship of motifs to the row is re-established and the row is reconstructed. In this manner the conscious and unconscious elements of the personality are symbolically reconciled. The four movements of the work are entitled: I. Primordial Images; II. Archaic Remnants; III. Mythological Motifs; IV. The Process of Individuation