In many international schools where English is the language of learning and teaching there are large percentages of students whose first language is not English. Many of these students may have low vocabulary levels which inhibits their chances of taking full advantage of their education. Low vocabulary levels can be a particular problem for students in mainstream classes where fluent English speaking teachers are using English to teach content areas of Mathematics, Science and History. Not only do students have to comprehend the low-frequency, academic and technical vocabulary pertaining to the subject, but they also need to know the higher frequency vocabulary that makes up general English usage. If students’ vocabulary levels fall too far below the vocabulary levels with which their teachers are speaking, then their chance of comprehending the topic is small, as is their chance of succeeding in their subjects. This study has two broad aims. Firstly, I have set out to assess the English vocabulary levels of students at an international school where English is the language of learning and teaching. The majority of students at this school do not have English as their first language. The second aim of this study is to explore the vocabulary profile of the teachers’ spoken discourse at the research school. By gaining a better understanding of the nature of teacher discourse – specifically the percentage of high, mid and low-frequency vocabulary, as well as academic vocabulary that they use – English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers will be in a stronger position to identify what the vocabulary learning task is and be able to assist students in reaching the vocabulary levels necessary to make sense of their lessons. This study revealed a large gap between the generally low vocabulary levels of ESL students and the vocabulary levels spoken by their teachers. As a result the need for explicit vocabulary instruction and learning is shown to be very important in English medium (international) schools, where there are large numbers of students whose first language is not English. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / M.A. (Applied Linguistics)

An increasing number of university freshmen has been observable in absolute number as well as percentage of population over the last decade. However, at the same time the drop-out rate has increased significantly. While a drop in attendance could be observed at the same time, statistics show that young professionals consider only roughly thirty percent of their qualification to originate in their university education. Taking this into consideration with the before mentioned, one conclusion could be that students fail to see the importance of fundamental classes and choose to seek knowledge elsewhere, for example in free online courses. However, the so acquired knowledge is a non-attributable qualification. One solution to this problem must be to make on-site activities more attractive. A promising approach for raised attractiveness would be to support students in self-regulated learning processes, making them experience importance and value of own decisions based on realistic self-assessment and self-evaluation. At the same time, strict ex-cathedra teaching should be replaced by interactive forms of education, ideally activating on a meta-cognitive level. Particularly, as many students bring mobile communication devices into classes, this promising approach could be extended by utilising these mobile devices as second screens. That way, enhanced learning experiences can be provided. The basic idea is simple, namely to contribute to psychological concepts with the means of computer science. An example for this idea are audience response systems. There has been numerous research into these and related approaches for university readings, but other forms of education have not been sufficiently considered, for example tutorials. This technological aspect can be combined with recent didactics research and concepts like peer instruction or visible learning. Therefore, this dissertation presents an experimental approach at providing existing IT solutions for on-site tutorials, specifically tools for audience responses, evaluations, learning demand assessments, peer discussion, and virtual interactive whiteboards. These tools are provided under observation of anonymity and cognisant incidental utilisation. They provide insight into students\' motivation to attend classes, their motivation to utilise tools, and into their tool utilisation itself. Experimental findings are combined into an extensible system concept consisting of three major tool classes: anonymous peer discussion means, anonymous control facilities, and learning demand assessment. With the exception of the latter, promising findings in context of tutorials are presented, for example the reduction of audience response systems to an emergency brake, the versatility of (peer) discussion systems, or a demand for retroactive deanonymisation of contributions. The overall positive impact of tool utilisation on motivation to attend and perceived value of tutorials is discussed and supplemented by a positive impact on the final exams\' outcomes.:List of Definitions, Theorems and Proofs List of Figures List of Tables Introduction and Motivation Part I: Propaedeutics 1 Working Theses 1.1 Definitions 1.2 Context of Working Theses and Definitions 2 Existing Concepts 2.1 Psychology 2.1.1 Self-Regulation and self-regulated Learning 2.1.2 Peer Instruction, Peer Discussion 2.1.3 Learning Process Supervision: Learning Demand Assessment 2.1.4 Cognitive Activation 2.1.5 Note on Gamification 2.1.6 Note on Blended Learning 2.2 Computer Science 2.2.1 Learning Platforms 2.2.2 Audience Response Systems (ARS) 2.2.3 Virtual Interactive Whiteboard Systems (V-IWB) 2.2.4 Cognisant Incidential Utilisation (CIU) 2.3 Appraisal 3 Related Work 3.1 Visible Learning 3.2 auditorium 3.3 Auditorium Mobile Classroom Service 3.4 ARSnova and other Audience Response Systems 3.5 Google Classroom 3.6 StackOverflow 3.7 AwwApp Part II: Proceedings 4 Global Picture and Prototype 4.1 Global Picture 4.2 System Architecture 4.2.1 Anonymous Discussion Means 4.2.2 Anonymous Control Facilities 4.3 Implementation 4.3.1 The Prototype 5 Investigated Tools 5.1 Note on Methodology 5.2 Anonymity 5.2.1 Methodology 5.2.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.2.3 Assertion 5.2.4 Experiments 5.2.5 Results 5.2.6 Conclusions 5.3 Learning Demand Assessment 5.3.1 Methodology 5.3.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.3.3 Tool Description 5.3.4 Assertion 5.3.5 Experiments 5.3.6 Results 5.3.7 Conclusions 5.4 Peer Discussion System 5.4.1 Methodology 5.4.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.4.3 Tool Description 5.4.4 Assertion 5.4.5 Experiments 5.4.6 Results 5.4.7 Conclusions 5.5 Virtual Interactive Whiteboard 5.5.1 Methodology 5.5.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.5.3 Tool Description 5.5.4 Assertion 5.5.5 Experiments 5.5.6 Results 5.5.7 Conclusions 5.6 Audience Response System and Emergency Brake 5.6.1 Methodology 5.6.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.6.3 Tool Description 5.6.4 Assertion 5.6.5 Experiments 5.6.6 Results 5.6.7 Conclusions 5.7 Evaluation System 5.7.1 Methodology 5.7.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.7.3 Tool Description 5.7.4 Assertion 5.7.5 Experiments 5.7.6 Results and Conclusion 6 Exam Outcome 7 Utilisation and Motivation 7.1 Prototype Utilisation 7.2 Motivational Aspects Part III: Appraisal 8 Lessons learned 9 Discussion 9.1 Working Theses’ Validity 9.2 Research Community: Impact and Outlook 9.2.1 Significance to Learning Psychology 9.3 Possible Extension of existing Solutions 10 Conclusion 10.1 Summary of scientific Contributions 10.2 Future Work Part IV: Appendix A Experimental Arrangement B Questionnaires B.1 Platform Feedback Sheet B.1.1 Original PFS in 2014 B.1.2 Original PFS in 2015 B.2 Minute Paper B.3 Motivation and Utilisation Questionnaires B.3.1 Motivation 2013 and 2014 B.3.2 Motivation 2015 B.3.3 Utilisation 2014 B.3.4 Utilisation 2015, Rev. I B.3.5 Utilisation 2015, Rev. II C References C.1 Auxiliary Means D Publications D.1 Original Research Contributions D.2 Student Theses E Glossary F Index G Milestones Acknowledgements / Über die vergangene Dekade ist eine zunehmende Zahl Studienanfänger beobachtbar, sowohl in der absoluten Anzahl, als auch im Bevölkerungsanteil. Demgegenüber steht aber eine überproportional hohe Steigerung der Abbruchquote. Während gleichzeitig die Anwesenheit in universitären Lehrveranstaltungen sinkt, zeigen Statistiken, dass nur etwa ein Drittel der Berufseinsteiger die Grundlagen ihrer Qualifikation im Studium sieht. Daraus könnte man ableiten, dass Studierende den Wert und die Bedeutung universitärer Ausbildung unterschätzen und stattdessen Wissen in anderen Quellen suchen, beispielsweise unentgeltlichen Online-Angeboten. Das auf diese Art angeeignete Wissen stellt aber eine formell nicht nachweise Qualifikation dar. Ein Weg aus diesem Dilemma muss die Steigerung der Attraktivität der universitären Lehrveranstaltungen sein. Ein vielversprechender Ansatz ist die Unterstützung der Studierenden im selbst-regulierten Lernen, wodurch sie die Wichtigkeit und den Wert eigener Entscheidung(sfindungsprozesse) auf Basis realistischer Selbsteinschätzung und Selbstevaluation erlernen. Gleichzeitig sollte Frontalunterricht durch interaktive Lehrformen ersetzt werden, idealerweise durch Aktivierung auf meta-kognitiver Ebene. Dies ist vielversprechend insbesondere, weil viele Studierende ihre eigenen mobilen Endgeräte in Lehrveranstaltungen bringen. Diese Geräte können als Second Screen für die neuen Lehrkonzepte verwendet werden. Auf diese Art kann dann eine verbesserte Lernerfahrung vermittelt werden. Die Grundidee ist simpel, nämlich in der Psychologie bewährte Didaktik-Konzepte durch die Mittel der Informatik zu unterstützen. Ein Beispiel dafür sind Audience Response Systeme, die hinlänglich im Rahmen von Vorlesungen untersucht worden sind. Andere Lehrformen wurden dabei jedoch unzureichend berücksichtigt, beispielsweise Tutorien. Ähnliche Überlegungen gelten natürlich auch für bewährte didaktische Konzepte wie Peer Instruction oder Betrachtungen in Form von Visible Learning. Deshalb präsentiert diese Dissertation einen experimentellen Ansatz, informationstechnische Lösungen für vor-Ort-Übungen anzubieten, nämlich Werkzeuge für Audience Response Systeme, Evaluationen, Lernbedarfsermittlung, Peer Discussion, sowie virtuelle interaktive Whiteboards. Die genannten Werkzeuge wurden unter Beachtung von Anonymitäts- und Beiläufigkeitsaspekten bereitgestellt. Sie erlauben einen Einblick in die Motivation der Studierenden Tutorien zu besuchen und die Werkzeuge zu nutzen, sowie ihr Nutzungsverhalten selbst. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse werden in ein erweiterbares Systemkonzept kombiniert, das drei Werkzeugklassen unterstützt: anonyme Peer Discussion, anonyme Kontrollwerkzeuge und Lernbedarfsermittlung. Für die ersten beiden Klassen liegen vielversprechende Ergebnisse vor, beispielsweise die notwendige Reduktion des Audience Response Systems auf eine Art Notbremse, die Vielseitigkeit von (Peer-)Discussion-Systemen, oder aber auch der Bedarf für eine retroaktive Deanonymisierung von initial anonymen Beiträgen. Der allgemein positive Einfluss der Werkzeugnutzung auf die Motivation an Tutorien teilzunehmen sowie den wahrgenommenen Wert der Tutorien werden abschließend diskutiert und durch verbesserte Abschlussklausurergebnisse untermauert.:List of Definitions, Theorems and Proofs List of Figures List of Tables Introduction and Motivation Part I: Propaedeutics 1 Working Theses 1.1 Definitions 1.2 Context of Working Theses and Definitions 2 Existing Concepts 2.1 Psychology 2.1.1 Self-Regulation and self-regulated Learning 2.1.2 Peer Instruction, Peer Discussion 2.1.3 Learning Process Supervision: Learning Demand Assessment 2.1.4 Cognitive Activation 2.1.5 Note on Gamification 2.1.6 Note on Blended Learning 2.2 Computer Science 2.2.1 Learning Platforms 2.2.2 Audience Response Systems (ARS) 2.2.3 Virtual Interactive Whiteboard Systems (V-IWB) 2.2.4 Cognisant Incidential Utilisation (CIU) 2.3 Appraisal 3 Related Work 3.1 Visible Learning 3.2 auditorium 3.3 Auditorium Mobile Classroom Service 3.4 ARSnova and other Audience Response Systems 3.5 Google Classroom 3.6 StackOverflow 3.7 AwwApp Part II: Proceedings 4 Global Picture and Prototype 4.1 Global Picture 4.2 System Architecture 4.2.1 Anonymous Discussion Means 4.2.2 Anonymous Control Facilities 4.3 Implementation 4.3.1 The Prototype 5 Investigated Tools 5.1 Note on Methodology 5.2 Anonymity 5.2.1 Methodology 5.2.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.2.3 Assertion 5.2.4 Experiments 5.2.5 Results 5.2.6 Conclusions 5.3 Learning Demand Assessment 5.3.1 Methodology 5.3.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.3.3 Tool Description 5.3.4 Assertion 5.3.5 Experiments 5.3.6 Results 5.3.7 Conclusions 5.4 Peer Discussion System 5.4.1 Methodology 5.4.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.4.3 Tool Description 5.4.4 Assertion 5.4.5 Experiments 5.4.6 Results 5.4.7 Conclusions 5.5 Virtual Interactive Whiteboard 5.5.1 Methodology 5.5.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.5.3 Tool Description 5.5.4 Assertion 5.5.5 Experiments 5.5.6 Results 5.5.7 Conclusions 5.6 Audience Response System and Emergency Brake 5.6.1 Methodology 5.6.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.6.3 Tool Description 5.6.4 Assertion 5.6.5 Experiments 5.6.6 Results 5.6.7 Conclusions 5.7 Evaluation System 5.7.1 Methodology 5.7.2 Visible Learning Effects 5.7.3 Tool Description 5.7.4 Assertion 5.7.5 Experiments 5.7.6 Results and Conclusion 6 Exam Outcome 7 Utilisation and Motivation 7.1 Prototype Utilisation 7.2 Motivational Aspects Part III: Appraisal 8 Lessons learned 9 Discussion 9.1 Working Theses’ Validity 9.2 Research Community: Impact and Outlook 9.2.1 Significance to Learning Psychology 9.3 Possible Extension of existing Solutions 10 Conclusion 10.1 Summary of scientific Contributions 10.2 Future Work Part IV: Appendix A Experimental Arrangement B Questionnaires B.1 Platform Feedback Sheet B.1.1 Original PFS in 2014 B.1.2 Original PFS in 2015 B.2 Minute Paper B.3 Motivation and Utilisation Questionnaires B.3.1 Motivation 2013 and 2014 B.3.2 Motivation 2015 B.3.3 Utilisation 2014 B.3.4 Utilisation 2015, Rev. I B.3.5 Utilisation 2015, Rev. II C References C.1 Auxiliary Means D Publications D.1 Original Research Contributions D.2 Student Theses E Glossary F Index G Milestones Acknowledgements