Horses are at high risk to develop systemic inflammation due to the release of bacterial endotoxin from an inflamed gastrointestinal tract. Neutrophils are critical for mounting an immune response to bacterial endotoxins. Neutrophil activation following engagement of bacterial endotoxin expands their lifespan through suppression of their constitutive apoptosis. The prolonged lifespan of neutrophils propagates acute inflammation and delays the resolution of inflammation. Since equine neutrophil lifespan has not been well-studied, I investigated the occurrence of equine neutrophil apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. First, I investigated the effect of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment on the occurrence of equine neutrophil apoptosis in vitro. LPS treatment delayed in vitro equine neutrophil apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner at concentrations of 0.1-10 μg/ml through toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 signaling and down-regulation of the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis, specifically through reduced caspase-9 activity. Next, I found that ex vivo neutrophil apoptosis was delayed in two models of intestinal inflammation, jejunal ischemia and reperfusion (IR) and oligofructose-induced colitis, through down-regulation of both the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways via reduced caspase-3, -8, and -9 activities. Pulmonary intravascular macrophages (PIMs) depletion with systemic gadolinium chloride (GC) prevented the prolongation of ex vivo neutrophil lifespan in horses undergoing jejunal IR through modulation of caspase-3, -8 and -9 activities. PIM depletion in IR horses resulted in an earlier and greater increase in tumor necrosis factor-alpha and a concomitant decrease in interleukin-10 to suggest an enhanced systemic pro-inflammatory response. I examined the effect of neutrophil concentration and co-incubation with aged, apoptotic neutrophils on the occurrence of neutrophil apoptosis in vitro. Neutrophil apoptosis was delayed with increasing concentrations of neutrophils in vitro, which may contribute to delayed neutrophil apoptosis in systemic inflammation. However, co-incubation with aged, apoptotic neutrophils did not alter in vitro neutrophil lifespan. Taken together, the data show that LPS delays equine neutrophils apoptosis in vitro in a TLR4-dependent manner through inhibition of caspase-9. Ex vivo neutrophil apoptosis was also delayed with systemic inflammation via down-regulation of caspase activity. A novel finding of this work was the reversal of delayed neutrophil apoptosis by depletion of PIMs in horses experiencing intestinal IR.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / O ciclo vicioso de doenÃas entÃricas na infÃncia à um problema de saÃde pÃblica com consequÃncias graves e seus efeitos no desenvolvimento infantil nÃo estÃo totalmente elucidados. Orià e colaboradores, em 2005, demonstraram que crianÃas portadoras do gene APOE 4 com alta morbidade de diarreia apresentavam um melhor desempenho em testes cognitivos. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar o papel protetor do gene APOE 4 em camundongos C57BL6J submetidos à desnutriÃÃo induzida por uma raÃÃo pobre em proteÃna (2%) e pela infecÃÃo intestinal induzida pelo Criptosporidium parvum. Utilizamos camundongos C57BL6J machos com peso mÃdio de 14 g, submetidos a um perÃodo de 14 dias de desnutriÃÃo e a 7 dias de infeÃÃo por C. parvum meio por meio da gavagem de 107 oocistos. Os animais foram separados segundo o genÃtipo: wildtype, APOE nocaute (ApoE Ko), APOE 3/3 (com gene APOE 3 humano) e APOE 4/4 (com gene APOE 4 humano). Os animais controles receberam PBS via gavagem. O peso dos animais foi monitorado diariamente. Os camundongos foram sacrificados em cÃmara de CO2 seguido de deslocamento cervical apÃs 14 dias do inÃcio do protocolo. Durante o perÃodo de pÃs-infecÃÃo foram coletadas as fezes dos animais infectados em dias alternados, para a realizaÃÃo do PCR quantitativo em tempo real (qPCR) para a anÃlise da quantidade de C. parvum liberada nas fezes. Amostras de Ãleo foram congeladas em nitrogÃnio lÃquido e armazenadas em freezer a -80ÂC para as anÃlises moleculares. Outras amostras foram fixadas em paraformaldeÃdo tamponado (4%) para processamento histolÃgico. Foram avaliados os parÃmetros morfomÃtricos de altura de vilo e profundidade de cripta nos segmentos ileais. Para a detecÃÃo de citocinas prÃinflamatÃrias de interesse (IL-1&#946;, IFN- &#947;, TNF-&#945; e IL-17), utilizou-se o ensaio multiplex (Luminex xMAP). Ainda por qPCR avaliou-se o transportador catiÃnico de aminoÃcidos (CAT-1), arginase 1, iNOS e TLR9. No peso encontramos uma maior adaptaÃÃo a perda de peso nos animais APOE 4 no 2o e 3o dias de desnutriÃÃo em comparaÃÃo a todos os grupos (p<0,05). No perÃodo de pÃs-infecÃÃo verificou-se diferenÃa significante no 2o dia (p<0,05) em comparaÃÃo a todos os grupos. Nas anÃlises morfomÃtricas, encontramos uma reduÃÃo na altura de vilos e profundidade de criptas nos animais APOE nocautes, jà nos animais APOE 4/4 ocorreu uma proteÃÃo contra esses danos em comparaÃÃo a todos os grupos (p<0,05). Os dados da anÃlise de liberaÃÃo de oocistos nas fezes evidenciaram um aumento do estado prÃ-inflamatÃrio e antiparasitÃrio nos animais APOE Ko e APOE 4/4, verificado por meio de uma reduÃÃo na quantidade de C. parvum liberado nas fezes de maneira significativa. Houve um aumento dos nÃveis intestinais das citocinas prÃ-inflamatÃrias IL-1&#946; (p<0,05) nos animais APOE Ko desnutridos e infectados em comparaÃÃo com APOE3/3 e APOE4/4, e altos nÃveis de IFN-&#947; (p<0,05) em comparaÃÃo com os controles selvagens e o grupo APOE Ko desnutrido controle. Os animais desnutridos controles APOE Ko tiveram aumento dos nÃveis intestinais de IL-17 (p<0,05) quando comparados aos animais APOE Ko desnutridos infectados. Dados de qPCR evidenciam que a presenÃa do genÃtipo APOE4 em camundongos aumenta os transcritos primÃrios de CAT-1 e arginase - 1 no Ãleo em relaÃÃo aos selvagens, APOE Ko e APOE3 (p<0,05) e que os animais nocautes aumentaram a expressÃo de iNOS em relaÃÃo aos outros grupos (p<0,05). Os animais APOE 4 desnutridos e infectados apresentaram uma expressÃo significativamente aumentada nos nÃveis de mRNA para TLR9 no Ãleo comparado com os APOE Ko igualmente desafiados (p<0,05). A partir dos nossos achados, podemos concluir que o animais com genÃtipo APOE 4 possuem uma aÃÃo prÃ-inflamatÃria controlada, o que favorece o combate ao C. parvum, visto que reduz a quantidade de DNA do parasita liberado nas fezes e melhora a taxa de crescimento de animais submetidos pela desnutriÃÃo/infecÃÃo, sugerindo que hospedeiros com genÃtipo APOE 4 possuem uma maior proteÃÃo contra as alteraÃÃes intestinais induzidas pela combinaÃÃo de C. parvum e desnutriÃÃo. / The vicious cycle of enteric infections and malnutrition during childhood is a major public health problem with devastating consequences and its effects are not fully elucidated. Oria and colleagues in 2005 showed that children with heavy diarrhea burdens when carrying the APOE 4 gene had a better cognitive performance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the protective role of APOE 4 gene in C57BL6J mice challenged by malnutrition induced by a 2% protein diet and intestinal infection caused by Cryptosporidium parvum. We used male C57BL6J mice weighing in average 14g, challenged by malnutrition for a period of 14 days compound with 7 days of C. parvum infection through a single dose of 107 oocysts given by gavage. Study animals were separated according to their genotype, as following: wild-type, APOE knock-out, APOE 3/3 (carriers of the human APOE 3 gene) and APOE 4/4 (carriers of human APOE 4 gene). Control animals received PBS by gavage. Body weight of the animals was monitored daily. Mice were sacrificed in CO2 chamber with posterior cervical dislocation after 14 days from the beginning of the protocol. During the post-infection period, stools samples were collected from the infected mice every other day for real time quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays in order to quantify C. parvum oocysts released in the stools. Ileal samples were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and then stored in a freezer at -80ÂC for molecular analyses. Other samples were fixed in buffered paraformaldehyde (4%) for histological processing. Morphometric parameters were evaluated for villus height and crypt depth in the ileal segments. For detection of a proinflammatory cytokine panel (IL- 1&#946;, IFN-&#947;, TNF-&#945;, and IL-17), we used the multiplex assay (Luminex xMAP). In addition by qPCR, the cationic amino acid transporter (CAT-1), arginase 1, iNOS, and TLR9 were assessed. Regarding weight, we found a greater adaptation to weight loss in APOE 4 animals in the 2nd and 3rd days of malnutrition (p<0.05) and in the postinfection time there was a significant difference on the 2nd day (p<0.05) compared to all groups. In the morphometric analyses, we found villus blunting and crypt disorganization in APOE knockout mice. We found APOE 4 protection against these alterations compared to all groups (p<0.05). The C. parvum oocyst shedding data indicate an increase in the pro-inflammatory state and anti-parasitic effects seen in the APOE Ko and APOE 4/4 mice, as confirmed by a significant reduction of the C. parvum released in the stools. In addition, we found increased levels of the intestinal pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-1&#946;) (p<0.05) in the APOE Ko when compared with APOE3/3 and APOE4/4, higher levels of IFN-&#947; (p<0.05) when compared with wild-type and undernourished APOE Ko controls. The APOE Ko undernourished mice have increased intestinal levels of IL-17 compared with APOE Ko undernourished infected mice. qPCR data demonstrate that the presence of the APOE4 genotype in mice increased the primary transcripts of CAT-1 and arginase 1 in comparison to wild types, APOE Ko, and APOE 3/3 (p<0.05). Furtermore, APOE knockout mice had higher iNOS expression in comparison to all groups (p<0.05). The APOE 4 mice showed significant increase in the expression of TLR9 mRNA in the ileum when compared to APOE Ko mice (p<0.05). Altogether we concluded that the APOE 4 carriers have a balanced pro-inflammatory response, benefiting the C. parvum control, as seen by reduction of the parasite DNA released in the stools, and by improvements in the growth rates in the mice challenged malnutrition/infection, suggesting that the hosts carrying the APOE4 genotype have a better protection against the intestinal alterations induced by the compound challenge of C. parvum infection and malnutrition.

No description available.

The aetiology of IBD is unknown, but available evidence suggests that an aberrant immune response towards the commensal microbial flora is responsible for intestinal inflammation in genetically susceptible individuals. Studies from animal models of intestinal inflammation have greatly advanced our understanding of the immunological basis of IBD. However, translation of results from animal research into human studies is essential in order to improve treatment options and patient quality of life. In this thesis we present the successful introduction of translational studies on human tissue in our laboratory. In particular, we evaluated the role of the IL23/IL17 pathway in the human immune response and its role in IBD. IL23-driven inflammation has been primarily linked to its activity on Th-17 cells; however, work from our laboratory has identified a novel population of IL23-responsive ILC, which are responsible for innate colitis in mice. Here we have analyzed the role of IL23-responsive innate cells in IBD. Our results show increased expression of Th-17 signature genes amongst intestinal CD3- cells in patients with IBD. Furthermore, we observed a marked and selective increase in IL17 producing CD56- ILC in the inflamed intestine of patients with CD. ILC may contribute to intestinal inflammation through secretion of cytokines, such as IL17A and IL17F, and recruitment of other inflammatory cells, representing a novel tissue-specific target for the treatment of IBD. In addition, we present here our preliminary data on the characterization of human intestinal and systemic DC populations. In particular, we aimed to evaluate if in the context of the intestinal microenvironment DC develop specific regulatory features, as observed in murine CD103+ DC. We show that human intestinal DC populations exhibit specific regulatory properties, such as expression of genes associated with TGF-β and RA activity. Furthermore, CD103+ DC are present in the human gut and are characterized by tolerogenic markers. Remarkably, patients with IBD have reduced frequencies of intestinal CD103+ DC, which display a more pro-inflammatory phenotype. Alteration in DC subset composition and functional activity may result in a distort balance between immune effector and regulatory responses, promoting the development of intestinal inflammation.

The nuclear factor kappa B (NFKB) signalling pathway is essential in the establishment and propagation of inflammation in the intestine. An increased number of cells, predominantly of the macrophage and intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) type, are known to contain the active form of the NF1d3-p65 subunit in inflamed and noninflamed intestinal tissue from Crahn's disease (CD) patients, though this remains to be confirmed. However the stimuli that induce NFKB activation in IECs and the mechanism of NFKB activation in macrophages, are only poorly understood. As such, this thesis has investigated the NFKB signalling pathway and its role in intestinal inflammation. Increased levels of NFKB DNA-binding activity and inhibitor kappa B alpha (IKBa) protein levels were found in both inflamed and non-inflamed intestinal tissue from CD patients. However, Bcl-3 levels did not significantly change. In HeLa Ohio cells, a human mucosal epithelial cell line, interleukin-l ~ (IL-l ~), lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and Phorbol 12-myritate I3-acetate (PMA) were shown to induce NFKB activation. However, when these same stimuli were used in another human IEC line, Caco-2, little NFKB-mediated gene expression was observed unless a combination of stimuli, IL-l~, LPS and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFa), was used. In RAW 264.7 cells, a murine macrophage cell line, LPS-stimulated NFKBmediated NO production was shown to involve protein kinase C epsilon (PKCc). Subsequently, PKC€ protein levels were also shown to be up-regulated in inflamed intestinal tissue from TNBS-treated rats. This was associated with increased NFlcB activation and IKBa protein levels, increases that were absent in non~inflamed tissue from TNBS-treated rats. In addition, IKB~ and Bcl-3 protein levels did not differ between inflamed and non-inflamed tissues, although they did vary with intestinal region. In conclusion, this study shows that abnormal NFKB activation and IKBa expression occurs in CD, and also suggests increased NFKB activation IKBa expression can coexist within inflamed intestinal tissue. In addition, the IEC line Caco-2 is shown to be relatively unresponsive to NFKB activation. In the macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7, PKC£ is involved in NFKB-mediated gene expression, and PKC£ protein levels are increased in the inflamed, TNBS-treated, intestine.

Leukocyte extravasation is mediated in part by tissue specific chemotactic cytokines (chemokines) and specific chemokine receptors expressed on the surface of circulating cells. C-C chemokine ligand CCL25 is expressed exclusively in the intestine and thymus and mediates chemotaxis by cells expressing receptor CCR9. This chemokine and receptor pair may be relevant in the pathogenesis of intestinal inflammation, in diseases such as Crohn’s disease (CD) and coeliac disease. In this thesis I investigated CCR9 expression in situ, in tissues affected by intestinal inflammation, and also examined the effects of CCR9 antagonist treatment in patients. In vitro I investigated CCR9 function using human peripheral blood T cells enriched for CCR9 by cell sorting or all-trans retinoic acid treatment. Using tissues collected as part of a clinical trial in CD testing CCR9 antagonist, CCX282-B, I investigated ways of measuring if treatment reduced the number of CCR9 expressing cells in the intestinal mucosa. However, in situ staining for CCR9 by immunohistochemistry was unsuccessful, and in this thesis, I explored reasons why this might be the case. Treatment with CCX282-B did however, show a tendency to reduce T cell density in the intestinal mucosa, although results were highly variable between individuals. In an examination of human CCR9 function in vitro I demonstrate for the first time that CCL25 stimulates CCR9 surface internalization. These data clarify the observation that CCR9 staining by IHC produces poor results in tissues where ligand is abundant, such as the intestine and thymus. I describe a novel technique for measuring calcium flux in two populations simultaneously by flow cytometry, which confirmed that in a heterogeneous population of cells, only CCR9 expressing cells respond to CCL25 by calcium flux. Variability in clinical trials is partly created by the use of concomitant medications, and in CD, corticosteroids are widely used. For the first time I show that glucocorticoids (GC) impair CCR9 mediated chemotaxis, calcium flux and intracellular signalling without changes to CCR9 mRNA and surface protein expression. Reduced CCR9 mediated signalling was accompanied by an enhanced expression and function of co-expressed CXCR4, demonstrating that the effects of GC were receptor-specific and not mediated by non-specific toxicity or inhibition of cell signalling. In a second study CCX282-B was tested in patients with coeliac disease, and in this trial, there was no reported concomitant use of GCs. It was confirmed that dietary gluten stimulates significant T cell recruitment to the intestinal mucosa with a pronounced accumulation of intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) and a rise in the frequency of FoxP3 expressing cells. Patients on CCX282-B had lower IEL counts, and an equivalent proportion of FoxP3 expressing T cells, suggesting that CCR9 blockade restricted the recruitment of effector T cell subsets. This thesis confirms that the accumulation of T cells is central to inflammation in the intestine and that modulating chemokine receptor function may affect this. Furthermore, this thesis demonstrates that the function of CCR9 is suppressed by GCs, which are widely used therapeutically and therefore could identify a novel mechanistic basis for their activity in CD.