Poverty and degradation of ecosystem services are prevalent features of the livelihood insecurity of coastal communities in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Livelihood diversification is typical in coastal rural areas and it is increasingly important to identify opportunities for income generation and ways to alleviate poverty. Sustainable enterprises provide a strong tool for livelihood development, but are still unable to find pathway towards development of ecosystem services and sustainable enterprises in coastal communities in Zanzibar.The aim of this study is to understand the existing livelihood diversification and income generating patterns in order to introduce sustainable enterprises in the future. Also, we aim to identify the conditions of the present dominant livelihood activities in terms of sustainability. During the study a household survey was conducted using a sample of 200 households from five coastal villages in Zanzibar. The data was collected by maintaining a daily diary and conducting comprehensive interviews. The statistical techniques, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), linear regression and other statistical measures were used to analyze the results. The ANOVA technique is used to test the differences in income generated by different livelihood sectors. The regression analysis techniques are employed to find out whether there is a correlation between numbers of livelihood activities and income.The results show that livelihood diversification is very high in coastal households in Zanzibar. With respect to ecosystem-based livelihoods, there is more household participation in fishing and seaweed farming, but it varies from village to village. Furthermore, fisheries and tourism are the most important sectors, and offer more opportunities to generate higher income for households. The findings suggest that there is space to improve the current dominant livelihood sectors in a sustainable way in the future. Livelihood management strategies are needed to take into account the market opportunities and their roles in livelihood development. Also, there is a need to identify possibilities to enhance livelihood opportunities in sectors with low household participation as an important way to reduce pressure on ecosystems. Finally, we outline the possible future impact of unsustainable development and of sustainable enterprises, and highlight the importance of a collaborative sustainable enterprise system to ensure livelihood security.

Adaptive co-management (ACM) has downplayed the role that diversity withincommunities could play in management schemes. It has understood communities asgroups of persons with similar interests. This thesis attempts to explore some of theconsequences that diversity of preferences of the future over social-ecologicaltrajectories within communities could have on adaptive co-management processes.The relevance of understanding this lies in the urgency of finding solutions thatpromote better resource and environmental management aimed at sustainability. Thefollowing work uses scenarios as a way to explore the effects that diversity ofpreferences within communities might have on ACM processes.

This case study investigates change processes in the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) over a 10-year period. It aims to increase the understanding of the dynamics of change processes in organizations which operate at the science-policy interface at the international level. ICES plays a key role in supplying policymakers and marine management agencies with scientific advice. The challenges facing governance of oceans and coastal areas have led these actors to embrace an ecosystem-based approach. This study takes a qualitative, transdisciplinary approach to investigate if and how ICES has responded to this shift towards a more holistic management paradigm. Resilience theory, combined with organizational change theory, is used to analyze several change processes identified. The ICES advisory program and the ICES science program have both undergone major reforms during the last 10 years. The ICES Secretariat has been reorganized, and strategic planning has given ICES new guiding documents. While the ecosystem-based approach was important as a backdrop for the reforms, it was not manifested as a dominating driver behind the changes. The major drivers were the need to improve efficiency and a striving for better integration between different components within the organization. The findings show that the international network structure of ICES gives a different dynamics of change compared to similar processes in traditional hierarchical government organizations. Implementation of change requires time to allow for broad consultations, which are important to ensure support and a sense of ownership within the ICES community. Changes are implemented incrementally to align with opportunities and constrains embedded in the complex institutional landscape within which ICES resides. These insights can contribute to the development of strategies aiming to enhance the capacity to govern marine ecosystems and build resilience of social-ecological systems.

Important throughout the 20th century, trade unions are an influential social actor that can affect and influence various policies, public opinion, and working standards through collective agreements, social activism, and political partnerships. Both within and extending beyond the workplace, unions have at times played a role in determining solutions to environmental issues, from health and safety standards all the way to national and international policy and solidarity activity, though this subject is rarely studied or analyzed. In particular, trade union stances and action on climate and energy issues represents an under-researched, yet important topic of analysis. Using the United States and Sweden as case studies, with analysis of two blue-collar unions in each, the research analyzes the important factors affecting choices and action regarding climate and energy matters. Within the case study approach, using a neo-institutional theoretical approach, I employed qualitative methods including semi-structured interviews, complemented with primary source documentary analysis. The analysis demonstrates that two unions (one in each country) can be described as active and two as defensive on environmental issues, respectively. The United Steelworkers in the United States and Kommunal in Sweden, both affected and acting within a particular structure, have been active at combating and seeking solutions to climate change, while linking work and environmental issues at multiple levels. Key factors such as working within a social unionism paradigm; instrumental leadership combined with multilevel work; and important mergers converge to influence and define behaviour. The United Autoworkers (U.S.) and IF Metall (Sweden), both defensive, though in their own ways, are influenced by factors including historical institutional power; regional concentration of employment; and the types of employment they represent.

The geographic distribution of dengue fever has increased worldwide in recent years and is at present the most widespread vector borne viral disease in the world (Halstead 2002). Because of its rapid spread and increasing seriousness of its complications it is considered to be the most troubling vector borne disease (Wilcox and Colwell 2005, Phillips 2008). Dengue fever is the one vector borne disease that poses the greatest threat to New Zealand. Imported cases are being reported in ever increasing numbers and all the components for a mosquito borne disease cycle is already present (Ministry of Health 1997). Furthermore, New Zealand’s geographic isolation makes it a unique location for studying the emergence of vector borne diseases, such as dengue. The objective of this thesis was - by using case studies on dengue fever on a global scale and the potential emergence of the disease in isolated New Zealand as examples – to explore the interlinkages between global changes (climate change and rapid urbanisation), globalisation (rapid travel and trade), and their local impacts on vulnerability and health (i.e. changes in local climate, travel and trade patterns and demographic changes that affect emergence and transmission of disease). This was done by 1) reviewing the ecological and environmental conditions necessary for dengue transmission; 2) examining key social and environmental factors contributing to the recent global increase in dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and 3) drawing projections to 2070 in order to build future scenarios for epidemic dengue risks in New Zealand. Regression analysis were used to analyse 16 years of area specific dengue rates from 232 geographical areas in relation to key social and environmental factors proposed to contribute to dengue emergence. The results were tested on the mainland of New Zealand in order to build future scenarios for epidemic dengue risks in New Zealand for 2070. The outcome from the regression analysis proved to have a good ability to predict dengue rates based on national characteristics and it predicted a nearly fourfold increase in risk of epidemic for New Zealand’s North Island based on climate projections for 2070. The projected increase in population density however, had much less of an effect on the perceived risk than the projected climate change despite an estimated increase of 33% in population density. This is the first study that makes an attempt to measure the relative importance of different social and environmental variables proposed to contribute in the recent global increase in dengue.

This study contributes to the Common Pool Resources debate by describing and analysinginstitutions that currently structure governance of community-based forest management inSanta Mónica and Palestina, within the Monte Verde region, Bolivia. It explores theinterplay between innovative communal and central-authority institutional features, theway they work and how they enable forest conservation. The method is narratology andanalysis of institutions and documents produced by this governance system through thelens of Elinor Ostrom’s institutional framework for the ‘alternative solution’ to thecommons problem. The results reveal that local communal rules and central-authorityrules are complementary rather than competitive. The local communities and the centralauthorityshare power to devise and enforce institutions for communal forestmanagement, which enable the local communities to exclude external actors, known as‘timber pirates’, who illegally harvest timber in this region. The central-authorityestablishes guidelines that are sensitive to local cultural contexts. Local governancedevelops rules conforming to these guidelines. The main reasons behind successful forestconservation in Monte Verde lie on the fact that a healthy forest is in the interest of localcommunities due to its contribution to economic development. Ecosystem services suchas traditional forest produce, profits from timber sales and related employment are vitalcontributors to the local economy. Governmental institutions and internationalconservation principles support this local interest and, therefore, this collaborative relationis successful. This case study also explores an innovative approach for dealing with theproblem of free-riding. Collective appropriation of timber products by local communitiesprevents internal individual appropriation race and enables them to make a more effectivemonitoring over unauthorised forest users.

Phnom Penh’s sanitation system is a combination of the drainage system and sewage system.Storm water, household wastewater, and industrial wastewater all flow together out of the city tothe detriment of the natural environment and the humans that depend on it. This continuedpersistence of an inefficient and harmful system is explored using path dependency theory. Pathdependency constrains the system to linear development and reflects the historical context inwhich decisions were made. Phnom Penh’s sanitation system is used to exemplify components ofpath dependence and their effect on implementing change.To incorporate room for change into Phnom Penh’s sanitation system, the inherent longevity inbuilt infrastructure must be overcome. Building infrastructure is expensive and the learning andcoordination that is associated with it is not easily replaced. The social context is ultimatelyresponsible for the investments made and the type of system expressed. Phnom Penh’s sanitationsystem reflects a historical legacy of colonial rule, decades of war, political chaos, and an influxof international aid contributing to an inefficient system being developed. The presence ofunpredictability and inflexibility in the system can result in an inefficient system being sustained.

West African fisheries, considered as one of the most productive in the world, have been subjected to stress by distant fishing fleets since the 1950’s. The introduction of Exclusive Economic Zones by the United Nations in the 1970’s made it possible for these fleets to fish only under fishing agreements signed with a hosting land, provided that they will harvest the surplus left by the local fishing fleet. In the last two decades, China has emerged as an important fishing nation in West Africa. Although there is clear evidence that Chinese vessels operate in the area, information on Chinese fishing agreements with West African countries is often missing. The implications on local fisheries are considerable. Lack of data regarding fish landings in the region may result in an increase of unsustainable fishing. The results of this study show considerable involvement of Chinese fishing vessels in illegal fishing in West Africa. In addition to the substantial loss of revenues to local nations, the negative impacts of illegal fishing on the marine ecosystem are likely to affect human populations that rely on these ecosystems. As the vulnerability of these people, many of them living in poor rural communities, is already high, unsustainable fisheries and a potential shift in the state of the marine ecosystem is likely to worsen their situation even more. Most West African countries lack capital resources to invest in monitoring, control and surveillance authorities, making illegal fishing relatively effortless. A better capacity to deter this type of activities is likely to have a significant improvement on West African fisheries. In addition, Chinese authorities, committed to the United Nations Law of the Sea, have the responsibility to take action against Chinese vessels that perform illegal activities in other parts of the world. A decrease in Chinese illegal fishing activities in West Africa, assessed to be considerable based on the studies’ results, will improve the possibility for achieving sustainable fisheries in the region.

Abstract. Parrotfish, a herbivorous reef fish, is considered to play an important role within coral reef ecosystems, enhancing coral reef resilience by keeping algal growth in check, allowing slower-growing coral recruits to settle. The functional performance of parrotfish species has been indicated to be dependent on body size. Albeit increasing size selective fishing pressure maintains, leading to immense effects on the dynamics of coral reefs, with consequences often much larger than changes in biomass and abundance of the targeted stock itself. The relative importance of the relationship between function (grazing) and body-size was tested in two parrotfish species (Scarus niger and Chlorurus sordidus) in the Red Sea. A non-linear relationship was found between functional performance and body size, with function found to increase notably as fishes reach a size of 15-20 cm At a regional level, parrotfish function was found to be low. These findings support the idea of a generalized ecological pattern of functional performance in parrotfishes. Demographic skewness within parrotfish species populations could easily be incorporated in routine monitoring schemes, thus act as a comparatively cheap and easily monitored indicator for assessing coral reef resilience, especially useful for managers in areas of limited budgets. Other alternative stable states than macroalgae, are speculated to be the case in the Red Sea.

Cultural landscapes provide goods and services that humans depend on. Managingsuch landscapes requires an institutional context that is safeguarding its functions.Collaboration among various stakeholders, organizations and authorities for establishingecosystem- based management is considered to be a major challenge and often transformationin governance is required. While governance that is integrating agencies across multiplespatial and institutional levels is increasingly suggested in trans-disciplinary research onsocial-ecological systems, processes on how to achieve this are poorly understood.Social learning is acknowledged for enhancing collaboration among multiplestakeholders, to increase actors’ capacity to deal effectively with the plurality of perceptions,to take collective decisions and to learn from experience. This case study is arguing that aninternational organization can trigger social learning. Emphasizing the role of guidance, thesense of prestige and creation of a common platform, specifically, it is exploring learningconditions, procedures and outcomes within a stakeholder group that is carrying out theWorld Heritage nomination of a cultural landscape in Bali. It exemplifies the challenge formanagement of a social-ecological system, in which no longer only the local resource usersand authorities have interest concerning the cultural landscape they are living in, but alsoglobal agencies are influencing management and hence the ecosystem itself.In that sense, the study is supporting the need of multi-scale governance dealing withglobal changes in natural resource management. It provides an example of a global actorsupporting self- organized learning processes. Though a structural social learning analysis, theunderstanding for this concept is deepened. Results reveal the potential and limits of aninternational organization in triggering sense making for a common vision, integratingstakeholders across vertical and horizontal scales and changing institutional frameworks thatenhance further learning and collaboration.